|
|
Correct nutrition is important for general
health, and ensuring proper nutrition is a part of preventative medicine. (P1.1980.w3)
- Nutrient deficiencies can cause specific diseases. Nutritional
excesses may also be harmful: excesses of some minerals may interfere
with utilisation of other minerals and also cause disease; excessive
levels of fat in ruminant diets may have an adverse effect on the
function of the rumen; excess vitamin D may lead to soft tissue
calcification. (P1.1968.w1)
- General nutritional deficiencies also may make an animal more
susceptible to diseases such as parasitism. (P1.1968.w2)
- Diets developed for use in captive wild animals are generally
prepared based on information about the animal's diet in the wild,
data on related domestic species, and tradition. They also are
dependent on availability of foodstuffs. (B438.24.w24)
- When adequate
information on foods and feeding is not available for a species, data on similar
species may be useful. (B214.2.3.4.w15)
- Care must be taken when substituting available food components for
wild foodstuffs, since the nutritional composition may be different. (B438.24.w24)
- While the nutritional composition of a white mouse (Mus domesticus - Laboratory mouse)
may be generally similar to that of a wild mouse, horse muscle
meat is very different nutritionally from the whole prey (of
whatever species) eaten by wild carnivores. (B438.24.w24)
- Prepared, compounded feedstuffs are available, convenient to
store, and offer reliable nutrient content, but may not meet the
animal's behavioural needs. (B438.24.w24)
See section below: Food Presentation and Behavioural Considerations
- Commonly, a mixture of compounded feeds and more
"natural" feedstuffs are given. (B438.24.w24)
Factors which should be considered in providing diets include:
- The functional anatomy of the digestive tract of the animal. The
digestive tract tends to be relatively simple in carnivores and to be
more anatomically complex in species eating plant materials which are
less easily digestible;
- Dental adaptations of the animal to its natural diet;
- The animal's diet and feeding behaviour in the wild;
- The basis by which the animal selects particular food items in the
wild (e.g. levels of certain compounds in leaves);
- Behavioural implications of food type and distribution - e.g. whether
food in the wild is found evenly distributed, or in scattered patches.
(B445.w11)
- Feeds provided in captivity should be designed to emulate the
nutritional content of the natural diet of the species being fed.
- Both "natural" food items and complete diets may be used;
there are advantages and disadvantages associated with both types of
food materials:
- Natural dietary items are advantageous in generally being of high
palatability, providing good use of the mouth and teeth (although
they may sometimes be harmful), providing variety in the diet, and
possibly containing constituents which are important, but the
functions of which are not yet understood. However, they may have
inadequate nutrient content and lack trace minerals and vitamins,
parts of the diet may be wasted, different individuals within a
group may eat different items, and in general these items may be
expensive. (P1.1980.w3)
- Complete diets can be carefully balanced nutritionally, with
vitamins and minerals added as required; a good nutritional plane
may improve reproduction. They provide complete nutrition to all
individuals, store easily and may be fed with minimum wastage, which
reduces costs. However, they may have poorer palatability than
natural foodstuffs, not use the animal's teeth properly, and
do not provide any variety for the animal (i.e. they can be boring).
(P1.1980.w3)
- Dietary items should be analysed to determine their nutrient
content. This is particularly important with items such as hay which
may vary considerably depending on the stage it has been cut and the
soil on which it has been grown. (P1.1968.w1,
P1.1968.w2)
- Proper control of nutrition requires that accurate measuring devices
(weighing scales, volumetric measures) are both available and used
properly. (B438.24.w24)
- There has been considerable work on developing nutritionally
balanced pelleted diets for herbivores and meat mixes for carnivores.
These may provide required nutrients, but complete feeding of
herbivores such as ruminants also involves considerable quantities of
roughage, while for carnivores the provision of whole prey items for
small species and large bones for large species is important. (P1.1980.w3)
- Muscle meat alone is not suitable as a diet for carnivorous mammals;
it is not nutritionally balanced. (B214.2.3.4.w15)
- Care is required when calcium supplements are added to meat in
the form of powders, in order to ensure that the supplement is
actually eaten. (P1.1968.w2)
- It should always be remembered that food provided is not
necessarily the same as food eaten. (B214.2.3.4.w15)
- Animals may be provided with a balanced diet but eat an unbalanced
diet, if the animals feed selectively; this may occur if the total food
provided is more than required, and if not all components provide
balanced nutrition. (P1.1968.w2)
- Even when the whole ration is eaten by a group of animals, preferred
items within the diet may be eaten more by dominant individuals, and
items which are less palatable to the animal may be eaten by subordinate
individuals. (P1.1980.w3)
- Given a choice, mammals will tend to eat the most palatable items,
rather than put together a balanced diet. (B468.8.w8m)
Variation in diet
- In the wild, diets vary on a day-to-day and seasonal basis.
- Diets provided to captive animals should vary appropriately, for
example increasing fat content in autumn (fall) prior to cold weather,
and decreasing fat in spring as warm weather approaches. (B438.24.w24)
- For animals which hibernate or become torpid in winter, food
requirements may be substantially reduced at this time. (B469.3.w3)
- Adjustments are required to meet the needs of different individuals
such as pregnant, lactating and elderly animals. (B438.24.w24)
- For fish-eaters, a variety of different fish should be provided,
all of high quality (fit for human consumption), including
high-fat and low-fat fishes, and both fin fish and invertebrates,
(B64.25.w6, D313)
"which complement each other in nutrient concentrations and, to the extent possible, represent the types of items the animals may consume in the
wild." (D313)
(B64.25.w6, B214.2.3.4.w15,
B438.24.w24, B469.3.w3,
D313, P1.1968.w1,
P1.1968.w2, P1.1980.w3)
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Bear Consideration
|
Dietary Requirements
- Bears have a typical
Carnivora - Carnivores (Order) digestive system, with simple
stomach, a short intestinal tract and no caecum. (B399.3.w3,
B491,
D247.5.w5)
As indicated above, bears are omnivores; polar bears have the most
carnivorous diet but do eat some vegetable matter in the wild. The amount and type of food
required varies between the species and with the size of the bear; males
of a given species are generally larger than females and need more food. (B288.w11)
Food intake of the northern species usually decreases during the time
that they would hibernate in the wild. (B288.w11)
It is important to remember that zoo bears may easily become obese. (B336.51.w51)
Diets commonly fed in zoos
Bears of all species in zoos are mainly fed fruit (particularly apples,
plus seasonally available fruits), and vegetables (especially carrots and
lettuce), generally supplemented with bread, pelleted concentrate foods
and vitamin/mineral supplements. (D247.5.w5)
- Meat (beef, horse, rarely pork) and fish is always given to polar
bears. (D247.5.w5)
- Meat, eggs, chicken or fish is given to other species in varying
quantities. (D247.5.w5)
- Leafy branches are offered most regularly to
Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear
but only occasionally to other species. (D247.5.w5)
- In Sarawak, Malaysia,
Helarctos malayanus - Sun bears in a wildlife rehabilitation centre
were fed bananas, papayas, watermelon, sugar cane and commercial dog
food, supplemented with multivitamin syrup and a calcium tablet; food
was given twice daily. (J27.63.w2)
-
Bears are usually fed mixtures of commercially prepared dry dog foods,
carnivore diet, and produce (fruits and vegetables).
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
are
often fed on commercial meat diets plus fish. (B336.51.w51)
-
If frozen fish is fed in large quantities,
thiamine supplements must
be given. (B336.51.w51)
-
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
often have been fed commercial omnivore pellets or dog food, plus
fish, to give about 3% (dry matter) of body weight in food per day. A
diet at Brookfield Zoo contained canine diet, omnivore diet, dog food,
fish (smelt), bread, apples and oranges; fish was supplemented with
100 mg Vitamin
E and
30 mg thiamine per kg (wet
weight) fish. (B185.37.w37)
They will readily eat plant matter as well as animal matter based
foods. (D315.2.w2)
- Note:
Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear
fed large amounts (3.6 kg per day) of dry dog food, and not given
access to grass to eat, developed loose stools, while this was not a
problem when 2.1 kg/day of the dry dog food was given, or when the bears ate grass. (P1.1985.w7)
Historical note
- Historically, bears in zoos have been fed on a diet based on meat and
bread, supplemented with fruit and vegetables. The daily diet for
Ursus arctos - Brown bear
at New York Zoo was described as
"10 pounds of raw horse meat, 5 pounds of whole fish, and 5 loaves
of bread, with apples, vegetables, and greens as available." (B288.w11)
Do NOT feed bears:
- Chocolate. (W627.Mar06.w1)
- Highly seasoned or spicy foods. (W627.Mar06.w1)
- Any food which has gone mouldy - nuts should be checked carefully
before being given. (W627.Mar06.w1)
- Excessive quantities of sweets. (W627.Mar06.w1)
Recommended diets
- The diet for bears in captivity should be as varied as possible and
reflect the range of plant and other food types eaten by wild bears. (B407.w6,
B407.w9,
D247.5.w5)
- Different requirements should be noted for different species,
reflecting their diet and seasonal variations of feeding in the wild. (D247.5.w5)
- To promote oral health in bears, soft foods should be fed first and
items with skin/hair or bones last. (D315.2.w2)
- Note: meat from pigs (swine) should not be given to bears
since bears are susceptible to Aujeszky's Disease (see:
Pseudorabies in Bears)
(D247.5.w5)
and Trichinella infection (see
Trichinella Infection in Hedgehogs and Bears).
Suggested foods for (North American) bears during rehabilitation
include:
- Dry dog food; this must be high-quality named-brand and labelled as
"complete". (B468.8.w8m,
B468.8.w8p)
- Ferret Diet 5280 (Purina). (B468.8.w8p)
- National® Gro-Fur Mink Pellets. (National Fur Foods
Company)(B468.8.w8p)
- Nutro Max Puppy®. (B468.8.w8p)
- Puppy Eukanuba®. (IAMS)(B468.8.w8p)
- ZuPreem® Omnivore Diet. (Premium Nutrition Products,
Inc.)(B468.8.w8p)
Suggested diets by species
For individuals which have put on fat prior to the winter and
then have voluntarily decreased their food intake, a seasonally varying
diet can be provided: (D247.5.w5)
- Spring. Mainly green vegetables (not iceberg lettuce),
including items such as dandelions (with roots), wheat shoots, fresh
cut grass, clover or alfalfa, willow branches, grass and weeds, hay
(i.e. grass from the previous year), root vegetables such as carrots
or kolrhabi, plus occasional meat (including bone and skin if
possible). (D247.5.w5)
- Normal or possibly increased vitamin/mineral supplements should
be given. (D247.5.w5)
- For lactating females, a protein- and energy-rich diet is
required to prevent them weaning their cubs early. (D247.5.w5)
- Summer. Gradually change to increase fruit, bread and
other more nutritious items. (D247.5.w5)
- Items suggested for spring can be given sometimes for variety. (D247.5.w5)
- Normal or possibly increased vitamin/mineral supplements should
be given. (D247.5.w5)
- Autumn. Provide fruit, carrots and mast - nuts and
seeds - together with occasional fatty meat. (D247.5.w5)
- Winter. Bears should be fat, have decreased food
consumption, and become less active. They may even hibernate if the
weather and facilities provide suitable conditions. Water should
be provided at all times. (D247.5.w5)
[no information is provided in this reference on what to feed these
species if they are not hibernating]
- Note: These bears may hibernate over winter, or semi-hibernate for
weeks at a time, if provided with ample food over summer and autumn
(fall),
but will remain more active, not hibernate, if they have been fed less
during the late summer and autumn. (B407.w7,
J23.29.w2)
These bears normally have a rich meat/seal blubber diet in late winter and spring,
with greatly reduced food availability in summer and autumn until the pack ice
returns. (D247.5.w5)
EEP Ursid Husbandry Guidelines:
- Late winter and spring. Fat meat, plus fish and oil. The diet
should be rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids therefore fat horse meat
may be preferred by the bears rather than fat beef.
- A large quantity of meat (e.g. a rump or shoulder of beef or horse
for two bears) can be given; the bear will eat this about every 4-5
days (as in the wild); (D247.5.w5)
see below regarding frequency of feeding.
- The meat should be supplemented with green food such as alfalfa,
green lettuce and wheat shoots. (D247.5.w5)
- Summer and autumn. The diet should be changed, including more
fruits and vegetables. Polar bears which have been fed well in
winter and put on fat may voluntarily reduce food intake in summer and
may stop feeding for a while in late summer or autumn. (D247.5.w5)
The Polar Bear Nutrition
Guidelines (provided in full):
- These guidelines have been based on an analysis of diets eaten in the wild and in captivity, and calculation of the nutritional requirements of polar bears determined by combination of known requirements for domestic carnivores (cats and dogs) and nutrients eaten by healthy bears in zoos.
- It has been recognised that the foods eaten in captivity will be very different from the
natural diet, therefore the captive diet must attempt to reproduce the nutritional values, not the packaging, of the polar bear's natural diet.
- It has been suggested that the diet should include: dry nutritionally complete food (e.g. extruded diet) as
5 - 50% of the diet, raw meat mix
(nutritionally complete) as 30 - 75% of the diet, saltwater fish as 15
- 30% of the diet, produce (e.g. root vegetables) as 0 - 10% of the diet, meat from shank bone as
5 - 7% of the diet, whole prey (large rats or rabbit) as 2.5% of the diet and miscellaneous items, such
as those used for environmental enrichment, as up to 3% of the diet.
- Gel complete diets, which are palatable but highly perishable, may be useful for oral medication or as treats.
(D251.4.w4
- provided in full)
Note:
- In the US, APHIS
standards for marine mammals, including
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
state: "The food for marine mammals must be wholesome, palatable, and free from contamination and must be of sufficient quantity and nutritive value to maintain marine mammals in a state of good health. The diet must be prepared with consideration for factors such as age, species, condition, and size of the marine mammal being fed. Marine mammals must be offered food at least once a day, except as directed by the attending veterinarian."
(LCofC9)
- The
Manitoba
Polar Bear Protection Regulation requires that any polar bear be
fed a balanced diet containing both hard and soft foods. (LCofC10
- [Full text provided])
- Whenever fish are fed, particularly fish such as herring, smelt and
mackerel which are known to contain discernable amounts of thiaminase,
it is important to ensure that the correct supplements are given. The
Nutrition
Advisory Group recommends that 25-30 mg of
thiamine
should be given per kg (wet weight) of fish, because of inactivation
of thiamine in the fish by thiaminases. Additionally,
Vitamin
E in fish is destroyed as polyunsaturated fish oils undergo
peroxidation, therefore animals fed thawed frozen fish are very
susceptible to vitamin E deficiency and 100 IU of vitamin E should be
given per kg (wet weight) of fish. (D313)
- Foods offered should be varied, avoiding a bear becoming dependent
on one food type and refusing to eat alternatives; this is
particularly important with fish, which may vary in seasonal
availability (as well as the possibility of changes in fish stocks in
the future). (D315.2.w2)
- Providing a variety of food items helps to ensure that the diet is
balanced. (B64.25.w6,
D313,
D315.2.w2)
- To avoid unbalancing the diet, supplementary enrichment food such as
honey, raisins, peanut butter should be varied and should not exceed
3% by weight of the total diet. (D251.4.w4,
D315.2.w2)
- There have been many reports of skin lesions in polar
bears in zoos. Some (but not all (V.w102))
of these bears have responded well to vitamin A
supplementation. It has been suggested that polar bears may need high
levels of this vitamin, higher than other carnivores. (P1.1981.w5,
) See:
Vitamin A-responsive Skin Disease in Bears
- Provide a varied diet, with daily variation in items offered. (D247.5.w5)
- A wide range of fruits should form the basis of the diet, with
additions of vegetables, nuts, honey, mealworms, crickets and
occasional meat and fish. (D247.5.w5)
The natural diet of termites plus fruits is low in fat and contains
formic acid and (in honey) propolis. The noted high incidence of malignant
neoplasia, particularly biliary adenocarcinoma (see:
Neoplasia in Bears,
Hepatic and Bile Duct Neoplasia in Bears), in these bears in
captivity may be related to diet. Bears with these tumours have been shown
to have eaten diets relatively high in fat and low in manganese and
selenium. (D247.5.w5)
- A diet similar to that provided for giant anteaters may be useful;
this has been used at Berlin Zoo. (D247.5.w5)
- Most zoos give fruit, crickets, mealworms, vegetables and bread. (D247.5.w5)
The natural diet appears to vary seasonally, with vegetation such as
leaves and bromeliads available year-round but fruits available mainly in
the first half of the year. The foods eaten are generally the easily
digestible and high protein soft parts of the plants. (D247.5.w5)
- Food should include cereal-rich items (e.g. bread), fruit,
vegetables rich in fibre (not iceberg lettuce), plus fresh
grass, alfalfa and whole maize plants.(D247.5.w5)
- A low-fat diet is recommended. (D247.5.w5)
- Meat (e.g. pigeon, chicken, beef) should be offered occasionally, as
should eggs. (D247.5.w5)
- Browse should be provided, such as poplar, birch, beech or hazel. (D247.5.w5)
- Pregnant females should be fed ad libitum. (D247.5.w5)
- A suggested diet of about 7600 kcal offered food, giving about 6500
kcal ME (metabolizable energy), is suggested. For example, 3.5 kg daily made up of 60% by
weight of dry cereal grains (including omnivore or dog pellets), 15%
fruits (raw, unpeeled, as seasonally available), 15% root crop
vegetables (e.g. carrots, potatoes, yams, beets, parsnips, swedes,
turnips, also unhusked sweetcorn, whole pumpkins or squash) and 10%
green produce and locally available browse (green leafy produce, not
iceberg lettuce). (P77.1.w9)
- It should be remembered that domestic fruits are lower in
protein and higher in simple sugars than wild fruits. Vegetables
may provide a diet closer in nutrient (protein, complex
carbohydrates, fibre) to the wild diet than do cultivated fruits.
(P77.1.w9)
- Late in gestation, and during early lactation, it may be
preferable to increase green forage, using this to replace the
fruit, thereby increasing both protein and fibre in the diet, then
gradually increase the fruits when the mother and cubs start
emerging from the den. (P77.1.w9)
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Lagomorph Consideration
|
Domestic rabbit
This section includes:
- Nutrient requirements
- Types of food
- Recommended diet
- (Feeding of other lagomorph species is considered at the end of this
section)
Nutrient requirements
Most of the nutrient requirements for domestic rabbits have been determined for
commercial rabbits (e.g. grown for meat production) first, and after that
for laboratory rabbits. (B554.21.w21,
B614.14.w14)
Nutrient needs of pet rabbits have been considered only much more
recently. Diets used for captive wild lagomorphs have generally been based on
the known requirements for
Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic rabbit.
Fibre
- Large, indigestible particles of fibre are required for natural
chewing and wear of the rabbit's teeth and for normal motility and
function of the rabbit's gastro-intestinal tract. (B606.2.w2,
J60.9.w1)
- Experimentally, increased growth rates were obtained by the
addition of fibre (alfalfa meal) to high-energy diets of weanling
rabbits, with the maximum gains occurring at 20% alfalfa. The
effect occurred even with ethanol-extracted alfalfa, indicating
that it was the fibre that was responsible for the effect.
Mortality, associated with diarrhoea (usually Escherichia coli),
was seen mainly when low-fibre diets were fed. (J495.28.w3)
- On a mainly high-fibre diet such as hay, rabbits will spend several
hours a day feeding, reducing boredom. (B606.2.w2)
- The diet should contain 18 - 20% fibre, including at least 10% crude
indigestible fibre. (B606.2.w2)
- Indigestible fibre includes particles, mainly lignin and cellulose,
of at least 0.3 - 0.5 mm diameter; particles of this size or greater
are moved through the colon, not entering the caecum and are not
digested. Particles smaller than this size are moved into the caecum
and are "fermentable"; they may be digested to a greater or
lesser extent depending on their chemical composition. (B600.2.w2)
- A minimum dietary fibre level of 20 - 25% has been suggested for
optimum gut health. (J284.79.w1)
- A high-fibre diet helps to maintain the normal
caecal bacterial
flora. (B606.2.w2)
- With inadequate fibre, changes in caecal
pH may lead to
overgrowth of Clostridia spp. and Escherichia. coli. (B606.2.w2)
- A low-fibre, high energy diet actually results in reduced
growth rates in the rabbit, as well as lower palatability and higher
rates of enteritis. The presence of indigestible fibre is important
for gut health in the rabbit. (B614.14.w14)
- Note; For pet rabbits, avoiding excessive weight gain and
promoting intestinal motility are important, not maximising efficiency
of food conversion. (B600.2.w2)
- If fresh grass or grass hay is provided ad libitum, and
eaten by the rabbit, fibre intake will be adequate. (B600.2.w2)
- Ingestion of hay may be inadequate if the rabbit has dental
disease, or if the hay available to it is soiled or otherwise
unpalatable. (B600.2.w2)
- Alfalfa hay is also a source of fibre; it also has a high
calcium content. (B600.2.w2)
- Garden weeds provide fibre. (B600.2.w2)
Protein
- A protein level of 12-13% is recommended, increasing to 16% for
growing rabbits and up to about 18% for breeding (pregnant and
lactating) rabbits. (B554.21.w21,
B606.2.w2,
B614.14.w14)
- Note:
- Excess protein in the diet may cause caecal ammonia, and
therefore pH, to rise; this can allow pathogenic microorganisms to
increase. (B614.14.w14,
J284.79.w1)
- High protein diets leading to ammonia production and excretion
may increase susceptibility to respiratory and eye diseases. (B606.2.w2)
- With excessive protein levels, rabbits may not ingest all their
caecotrophs and this may lead to "sticky bottom syndrome." (B606.2.w2)
Fat
- A fat level of 1% (for maintenance) up to 3% (for growth and
pregnancy) is appropriate. Often, fat levels (listed as
"oils") are higher than this. Fats from vegetable sources
are more digestible than animal fats. (B606.2.w2,
B614.14.w14
- A level of 3%, with 5% for lactating does, has been suggested. (B614.14.w14)
- Fat at 2% is adequate; the fat level should be no higher than
5%. (B554.21.w21)
- Higher levels of fat can be utilised; weanling rabbits showed
good growth on a diet containing 21% corn oil and 40% alfalfa
meal. (J495.28.w3)
- If processed food is old before it is fed, it may be low in
essential fatty acids; this may lead to the rabbit's coat becoming
dull and dry. (B606.2.w2)
Energy
- The following has been suggested: (B614.14.w14)
- For maintenance, digestible energy of 2,200 kcal/kg and
metabolizable energy of 2,120 kcal/kg;
- For growing rabbits (4 - 12 weeks old), digestible energy of
2,500 kcal/kg and metabolizable energy of 2,400 kcal/kg;
- For pregnant rabbits, digestible energy of 2,500 kcal/kg and
metabolizable energy of 2,400 kcal/kg;
- For lactating rabbits, digestible energy of 2,700 kcal/kg and
metabolizable energy of 2,600 kcal/kg;
- Or: calculate as follows:
- Maintenance:100 kcal (418.4 kJ) x (weight in kilogrammes)0.75
per day. (B554.21.w21)
- Growth: 190 - 210 kcal (798 - 882 kJ) x (weight in
kilogrammes)0.75 per day. (B554.21.w21)
- Gestation: 1.33 times maintenance at the start of
gestation, rising to twice maintenance by the end of gestation.
i.e. 135 kcal (567 kJ) x (weight in kilogrammes)0.75
per day. (B554.21.w21)
rising to 200 kcal (840 kJ) x (weight in kilogrammes)0.75
per day. (B554.21.w21)
(B554.21.w21)
- Lactation: 300 kcal (1260 kJ) x (weight in kilogrammes)0.75
per day. (B554.21.w21)
- Note: the main sources of energy for the rabbit are sugars,
absorbed from the small intestine, and the volatile fatty acids (VFA)
produced by microbial fermentation in the caecum and absorbed from
there. (B614.14.w14)
- The highest energy requirement occurs at peak lactation, about 21
days after parturition. At this time the doe is in negative energy
balance, mobilising body resources to support lactation. (B614.14.w14)
- For maintenance, a domestic rabbit needs about 2100 kilocalories per
kilogram of diet, increasing to 2500 kcal/kg diet in growing, pregnant or
lactating rabbits.
- If fed a complete pellet diet, a medium-sized adult
rabbit needs about 90 - 120 g (3 - 4 oz, 2/3 cup) of pelleted food per
day. (B604.2.w2)
-
Food requirement is also affected by temperature, therefore about 184 g
for a rabbit at 5 °C but only 125 g for a rabbit at 30 °C. (B604.2.w2)
Carbohydrate
- Carbohydrates can be digested by the rabbit in the stomach and small
intestine, and absorbed, or may be fermented by microbes in the caecum.
Simple polysaccharides are absorbed in the small intestines. Starches
are broken down in the small intestine and absorbed; the extent to
which this occurs depends on the type of starch, its level in the diet
and the age of the rabbit. Starch which passes through to the caecum
actas as a substrate for bacterial fermentation. It is thought that
this is a predisposing factor in the development of enterotoxaemia in
young rabbits: glucose released during fermentation of carbohydrates
by bacteria becomes available as a substrate for formation of
iotatoxin by Clostridum spiriforme bacteria. Adults appear much
more able to digest starch, with little ingested starch reaching the
caecum. (B600.2.w2)
- Excess carbohydrate in the diet may lead to obesity and predispose to
enterotoxaemia. (B606.2.w2)
Vitamins
- The following vitamin levels have been suggested: (B614.14.w14)
- Vitamin A 6,000 IU/kg feed for growing rabbits (4 - 12 weeks)
and 12,000 IU/kg in diets for pregnant and lactating rabbits.
- Carotene 0.83
ppm.
- Vitamin D 900 IU/kg feed.
- Vitamin E 50 IU/kg feed.
- Vitamin K 2 ppm in feed for pregnant and lactating does.
- Thiamin 2 ppm in feed for growing rabbits
- Riboflavin 6 ppm in feed for growing rabbits
- Pyridoxine 40 ppm in feed for growing rabbits
- Vitamin B12 (Chemicals Summary)Vi0.01
ppm in feed for growing rabbits
- Folic acid 1 ppm in feed for growing rabbits
- Pantothenic acid 20 ppm in feed for growing rabbits
- Vitamin A
- Vitamin A is usually included in
concentrate feeds at 10,000 iu/kg.
(B606.2.w2)
- Vitamin A deficiency may lead to infertility, abortion, embryo
resorption and increased neonatal mortality. (B606.2.w2)
See:
- Vitamin A insufficiency and vitamin A excess both may lead to
hydrocephalus (Hydrocephalus in Bears and Lagomorphs).
(B606.2.w2)
- Alfalfa is high in vitamin A activity. (B606.2.w2)
- Note that the amount of beta-carotene (vitamin A precursor) in
dried foods such as grass hay and alfalfa will decrease over time
and be influenced b storage/handling conditions.
(B554.21.w21,
V.w16)
- Vitamin A is important in maintenance of mucous membranes and other
epithelial tissues; deficiency may lead to an increase in
susceptibility to enteritis and to infection in general. (B614.14.w14)
- Note: it may be beneficial for reproduction if
beta-carotene is available even if vitamin A levels are already
adequate. (B554.21.w21)
- B vitamins
- B vitamins are produced by micro-organisms
in the colon, ingested in caecotrophs and absorbed by the rabbit. (B554.21.w21,
B606.2.w2)
- If a rabbit is unable to practice caecotophy for any reason,
supplementation with B vitamins may be needed. (B606.2.w2)
- Generally some supplementation is included in feeds. (B554.21.w21)
- Vitamin C
- Vitamin C is produced by micro-organisms in the caecum, ingested in caecotrophs and absorbed by the rabbit. (B606.2.w2)
-
Supplementary vitamin C may be useful in treatment of respiratory
disease and in preventing enterotoxaemia (Clostridial Enteritis and Enterotoxicosis in Rabbits). 50-100 mg/kg may be given
daily; any excess will be excreted through the kidneys. (B606.2.w2)
- Vitamin D3
- Vitamin D is usually included in concentrates at 900 iu/kg. With
excessive levels (2,300 iu/kg feed) it may lead to excessive calcium
uptake and dystrophic calcification of renal arteries and the aorta. (B606.2.w2,
B614.14.w14)
- The diet should be less than 1,000 IU/kg diet to avoid soft
tissue calcium deposition. (B554.21.w21)
- See:
Soft Tissue Mineralization - Kidney Calcification in Rabbits
- Vitamin E
- Vitamin E is usually included in concentrates at 50 mg/kg.
- Insufficient vitamin E may reduce fertility.
- Wheatgerm can be added to
the diet to increase vitamin E levels.
- Vitamin E deficiency can be
seen if diets are fed with less than 16 mg/kg and lead to muscular
dystrophy and hind limb paralysis in young rabbits. (B554.21.w21,
B606.2.w2)
- Levels of vitamin E decline by about 5 - 205 per month during
storage, therefore should be higher than the recommended level of
40 - 50 mg/kg initially. (B554.21.w21)
-
See:
Vitamin E - Selenium Deficiency
- Note: Rabbits with hepatic coccidiosis (Hepatic Coccidiosis in Lagomorphs) may have lowered vitamin A
and vitamin E levels and require higher levels than usual.
(B606.2.w2,
B554.21.w21)
- Vitamin K
- Vitamin K is produced by micro-organisms
in the colon, ingested in caecotrophs and absorbed by the rabbit. (B606.2.w2)
- If a rabbit is unable to practice caecotophy for any reason,
supplementation with vitamins B and K may be needed. (B606.2.w2)
- Vitamin K deficiency may adversely affect reproduction; this
should be included in the diet even though coprophagy would be
expected to provide adequate levels. (B554.21.w21)
Calcium
- Rabbits need calcium for proper growth and maintenance of bones and
teeth as well as for essential functions such as nerve cell activity,
blood clotting etc. Rabbit teeth grow about 2 mm per week, so a
constant source of calcium is important. (B600.2.w2)
- Rabbits readily absorb dietary calcium, using both passive diffusion
and, particularly when calcium levels in the diet are low, active
absorption (vitamin D-dependent). (B600.1.w1)
- At least 0.44% calcium is required for calcification of bones. (B600.2.w2)
- Grass, weeds and hay contain appropriate amounts of calcium,
although poor-quality hay may be low in calcium and/or vitamin D. (B600.2.w2)
- Alfalfa is high in calcium. (B600.2.w2)
- Excessive calcium is excreted through the kidneys and large amounts
of calcium carbonate may be found in the urine; this predisposes to
"sludgy urine" and to development of cystitis.
- Calcium levels of different vegetables and fruits vary; apples and
carrots are low in calcium.
- Calcium absorption from the gut may be affected by pH, phosphates
and oxalates, as well as fats. (B600.2.w2)
- Note: in rabbits with a long life span (as is intended for
pets (and laboratory rabbits) excessively high calcium levels in the
diet, as seen when the rabbits are fed mainly a commercial pellet
based on alfalfa, can lead to renal damage and deposition of calcium
in the urinary tract. (B614.14.w14)
- Calcium levels in the diet should be adequate but not excessive. (B554.21.w21)
- For pet rabbits, 0.6 - 1.0% calcium in the diet has been
recommended. (B600.2.w2)
Phosphorus
- Recommended levels in feed include 0.4% (with 0.6% calcium) for
maintenance, 0.3% (with 0.5% calcium) in growing rabbits, 0.8% (with
1.1% calcium) in lactating rabbits and 0.5% (with 0.8% calcium) in
pregnant rabbits).
- For pet rabbits, 0.4 - 0.8% has been suggested. (B600.2.w2)
- The minimum required for growing rabbits is 0.22%. (J284.20.w1)
Copper
- Copper in the diet at 4 - 30 mg per kg of feed may reduce enteritis and
increase weight gain. (B606.2.w2)
For adult pet rabbits, the following nutritional food analysis is
suggested: (B600.2.w2)
- Crude fibre >18%
- Indigestible fibre >12.5%
- Crude protein 12 - 16%
- Fat 1-4%
- Calcium 0.6 - 1.0%
- Phosphorus: 0.4 - 0.8%
- Vitamin A 10,000 - 18,000 IU/kg
- Vitamin D: 800 - 1,200 IU/kg
- Vitamin E: 40 - 70 mg/kg
- Magnesium: 0.3%
- Zinc: 0.5%
- Potassium: 0.6 - 0.7%
- Note: for growing rabbits it is important to ensure calcium
levels are sufficient. (B600.2.w2)
Note:
- The amount eaten by rabbits varies with factors such as ambient
temperature, and water availability. (B604.2.w2)
- Rabbits like sweet foods such as molasses. They also readily eat bitter
foods such as alfalfa. (B604.2.w2)
- Diets which are high in fibre pass through the rabbit's GIT rapidly,
allowing the rabbit to eat more. (B604.2.w2)
- Food requirements increase in cold temperatures. In breeding females, a
peak of food consumption is seen at mid-pregnancy, decreasing again to
parturition (kindling) then increasing again to a second peak at two to
three weeks of lactation, then reducing again to weaning at about 30 days
post-partum. (B604.2.w2)
Types of food
- Diets fed to pet rabbits include "complete" pellets,
"mixes", hay, grass, vegetables and fruit etc.
- Commercially-produced foods may be labelled as "complete" (no
supplementary food items needed), "complementary" (to be fed as
part of the diet, together with e.g. hay., or "food supplement"
(concentrated nutrients, e.g. vitamins and minerals, intended to
supplement the diet. (B600.2.w2,
D353,
J60.9.w1)
- Note: In the UK, as a minimum, commercially-produced foods must be labelled
with protein, oil, fibre and ash levels. Directions for use and a
"Best Before" date must also be displayed, together with the
name and address of the person who guarantees accurate information, and
the name of the food and a description. (B600.2.w2)
Mixes
- These may look visually appealing to the rabbit's owner, are widely available,
cheap and convenient. (B600.2.w2,
B554.22.w22,
D353)
- Mixes are generally palatable to rabbits. (B600.2.w2)
- Usually mixes are complementary feeds, designed to be fed alongside
hay, which will provide indigestible fibre for the rabbit.
- There is a lot of variation in the composition of mixes between
different manufacturers. Common ingredients include cereals (flaked, rolled or
micronized)
and legumes together with pellets (containing vitamins and minerals),
often lucern (alfalfa) stems, and extruded "biscuits"; molasses,
compressed linseed, locust beans etc. may also be included, as well as
dried carrot or leek. In some countries, sunflower seeds, peanuts and
whole corn kernels may be present in mixes.
Selective feeding
- Rabbits can be selective when feeding from mixed diets; for example
they may separate out the cereal kernels and leave the husk (intended
as a source of fibre), and may fail to eat the pellets. Selection is
made worse if the owner repeatedly refills the bowl and discards the
uneaten parts of the diet. (B554.22.w22,
B600.2.w2)
- Note: Portions of the diet which are the most
palatable for many rabbits, flaked maize and flaked peas, are
calcium deficient, with a poor calcium:phosphorus ratio. (B600.2.w2)
- If feeding a mix, note if the rabbit eats all the mix or leaves some
components. It is important to ensure that the rabbit eats all parts of
the mix to keep the diet balanced. If some parts are left regularly:
- Encourage the rabbit to eat all the food by feeding a smaller
amount of the food and by feeding the daily portion split into two
small meals rather than one larger meal. (W718.Jan09.w1)
- If it persistently feeds selectively, change to a different diet
which does not allow selective feeding.
(B600.2.w2,
W718.Jan09.w1)
- Note:
- If a mix is fed to groups of rabbits, it is impossible to
tell if different individuals are eating different parts of the diet,
and therefore whether or not each rabbit is eating a balanced diet. (B600.2.w2,
D353)
- Depending on what is included in the mix, there is a risk of some ingredients, particularly accidental whole
locust beans, but also whole dried peas or maize kernels, being
swallowed whole by the rabbit and causing an obstruction in the small
intestine. (B600.2.w2)
(B600.2.w2,
B554.22.w22,
D353,
W718.Jan09.w1)
Pellets
- Pelleted foods are made from ground food particles, compressed
together along with a binding agent, and with additives such as
vitamins, minerals, molasses (as a sweetening agent) etc. The size of
the particles affects digestibility; if the particles are small, they
are more likely to accumulate in the caecum and may increase the risk
of enteritis.
- Pellets are convenient, easy to store and prevent rabbits from picking out
preferred ingredients and leaving others. (B600.2.w2,
D353)
- Different pelleted foods are available for different stages of the
rabbit's life, such as growth, pregnancy or lactation, as well as for
maintenance.
- Pelleted foods often contain coccidiostats to reduce coccidiosis (a
common problem in intensively reared rabbits).
- Although pellets can include fibre, the processing involved in
pellet production tends to reduce the beneficial effects of the fibre.
(B600.2.w2)
- Pelleted diets may be less palatable to the rabbit than cereal-based
mixes.
- To the owner, pelleted diets appear boring.
- Pellets do not provide much opportunity for chewing.
- Pellets are often a relatively poor source of indigestible fibre for the
rabbit.
- If pellets are fed, grass hay should be given as well. (B600.2.w2)
- If pellets are fed, preferred size is about 5 mm diameter and 12 mm
length. (B604.2.w2)
- Note:
- Feeding a pelleted diet only may be associated with increased risk
of obesity, urolithiasis, gastro-intestinal diseases and hair chewing.
These problems can be reduced if the amount of pelleted diet is
decreased and the rabbit is given free access to a good quality, high
fibre, low calcium grass hay. (B604.2.w2)
(B600.2.w2,
B554.22.w22,
D353)
Extruded/expanded diets
- These diets are created by grinding, mixing and steam-heating
ingredients to form a paste which is extruded through a shaped die,
and cooled. The lightweight hard biscuit can be practically any size
or shape desired.
- Extruded diets store well.
- Compared with pellets, longer fibre particles can be included
without the end result tending to break up.
- Vitamins are partially denatured by the production process
(heating), therefore higher amounts need to be added to the initial
mix.
- The heating increases the digestibility of starch, thereby reducing
the risk of hindgut carbohydrate overload.
- Rabbits tend to find these diets more palatable and digestible than
standard pellets.
- They are not particularly attractive to owners, although they can be
made in a variety of shapes and colours to appear more attractive.
- They contain only limited amounts of indigestible fibre.
- Extruded diets prevent rabbits from eating selectively and choosing
an unbalanced diet, since each piece of food is nutritionally
identical (even if they are different shapes and/or colours).
- Example: Science - Selective Rabbit (Supreme
Petfoods) is a 19% fibre extruded diet containing "a
prebiotic which boosts immune function, aids digestion and improves caecal consistency."
(W718.Jan09.w2)
(B600.2.w2,
B554.22.w22,
D353,
W718.Jan09.w1)
Grass / grass hay
- Grass is a natural diet for rabbits. (B600.2.w2)
- Hay should smell pleasant and be free from mould and excess dust. (B622.4.w4,
D353)
- Grass can be cut from the garden, but mown grass is not suitable (it
ferments quickly and may be contaminated by fuel fumes). Additionally,
grass should not be used if it may be contaminated by fertilisers. (B622.4.w4)
- Grass and young nettles cut in the early summer can be hung up or
spread out on racks to dry and used as hay later. (B622.4.w4)
- Grass and pasture hay vary greatly in nutrient content: (B600.2.w2)
- Crude protein may be as high as 30% in highly-fertilised young
growing grass, but as low as 3% in mature plants on a DM (dry
matter) basis. (B556.17.w17)
- Mineral content varies with plant species, soil type,
application of fertilizer and stage of plant growth.
- Crude fibre content varies with species, and with the stage of growth (e.g. under 200 g/kg DM in the
young plant but 400 g/kg DM in the mature grass crop). (B556.17.w17)
- Crude fibre content also varies with hay quality, e.g. 29.8% in good quality hay, 38% in
poor quality hay. (B600.2.w2)
- Crude fibre content varies with species, e.g. 34.1% in
timothy hay, 30.5% in ryegrass hay, 29.8% in meadow hay (B556.19.w19).
- Green herbage is high in vitamin A activity, vitamin E and B-vitamins,
particularly riboflavin.
- Sun-dried hay has a higher Vitamin D content than does young
grass; rapidly-dried hay contains less vitamin D but more vitamin
A.
- Lignin content is low in young grass and increases with age;
this affects the availability of many other nutrients.
- Grasses may contain 20 - 30% cellulose and 10 - 30%
hemicellulose (DM basis).
- Poor quality hay may be deficient in calcium and/or vitamin D. (B600.2.w2)
- Timothy hay has a good stem to leaf ration and provides an
excellent amount of fibre. (B622.4.w4)
- Hay seeds and stems can become lodged in the skin or mucosa
(oral, pharyngeal, nasal passages, nasopharynx, larynx) resulting in
foreign body reactions with irritation and infection. (B600.2.w2)
- If hay is dusty, the conjunctiva and respiratory tract can become
irritated; this predisposes the rabbit to the development of bacterial
infections such as Pasteurella infection. (B600.2.w2)
- Haylage can be used as a dust-free alternative. (N12.38.w2)
- Note: there are risks of grass, grass hay or lucerne
(alfalfa) hay being contaminated with infectious agents including
viruses and parasites.
- In North America, hay (grass or lucerne) may be contaminated with Baylisascaris
eggs from raccoons or skunks. In rabbits this ascarid can cause
visceral larval migrans (Cerebrospinal Nematodiasis in Lagomorphs).
Alfalfa / lucerne
- This legume is commonly used for making hay in the USA, and less
commonly for making silage and hay in the UK. (B600.2.w2,
B622.3.w3)
- Dried alfalfa has a crude fibre level of about 25%. It is high in
protein, calcium and vitamin A. (B600.2.w2)
- It is higher in both protein and calcium than grass hay. (B622.4.w4)
- Alfalfa has high levels of oxalates, which bind calcium in the GIT,
affecting absorption (20-30% of calcium is bound). (B600.2.w2)
- Note: there are risks of grass, grass hay or lucerne
(alfalfa) hay being contaminated with infectious agents including
viruses and parasites.
- In North America, hay (grass or lucerne) may be contaminated with Baylisascaris
eggs from raccoons or skunks. In rabbits this ascarid can cause
visceral larval migrans (Cerebrospinal Nematodiasis in Lagomorphs).
Plants/vegetables
- Green vegetables, wild plants and herbs add variety to the diet. They
should be introduced into the diet gradually. (B622.4.w4)
- Safe plants to feed rabbits include: (B554.21.w21,
B600.2.w2,
B601.1.w1,
B621.II.w2,
B621.III.w3,
B624,
D354,
W716.Jan09.w1)
Cultivated plants/vegetables
- Artichoke leaves,
- Asparagus
- Baby Sweetcorns (but not full size ones)
- Beetroot (care with leafy tops as high levels of oxalic acid)
- (W716.Jan09.w1)
- broccoli (including leaves) ,
- Brussels sprouts,
- Cabbage, (can sometimes cause digestive upsets)
W716.Jan09.w1
- Carrot (and carrot tops), – the roots should be limited as they are high in sugars
(W716.Jan09.w1)
- Celeriac
- Celery, including leaves
- Cauliflower, cauliflower leaves,
- Chicory
- Chinese cabbage
- Corncobs
- Courgette (and flowers)
- Cucumber
- Endive
- Fennel
- Green beans,
- Jerusalem artichokes -
leaves (the roots can be fed in small quantities with plenty of hay
as they are rather high in sugar). (B621.II.w2)
- Kale, curly kale
-
Kohl rabi,
- Lettuce (in moderation); give a dark lettuce such as Romaine lettuce (not Iceberg or light coloured leaf)
(W716.Jan09.w1)
Do not give to weanlings. (B621.II.w2)
- Lucern/alfalfa (B621.II.w2)
- Mangolds, parsnip,
- Peas, including leaves and peapods,
- Peppers (red, green and yellow)
- Pumpkin
- Radish, radish tops
- Spinach (occasional)
W716.Jan09.w1
- Spring cabbage (spring greens, ollard greens),
- Squash (e.g. Butternut)
- Strawberry leaves and runners.
- String beans
- Swede,
- Sweetcorn
plants,
- Turnips (occasional)
W716.Jan09.w1
- Watercress.
|
Wild plants/garden plants
- Grass.
- Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
- Agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria)
- Borage (Borago officinalis)
- Bramble leaves,
- Bindweed (Calystegia spp.)(B554.21.w21)
- Calendula
- Camomile
- Chickweed (Stellaria spp.)
- Clovers
- Coltsfoot
(Tussilago farfara),
- Common comfrey (Symphytum officinale),
- Common or climbing ivy (Hedera
helix) (B621.III.w3)
- Cow parsnip/hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium)
- Crosswort (Galium cruciata),
- Young (green) docks,
- Goosegrass (Galium aparine)
- Ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria)
- Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris)
- Heather (Caluna vulgaris)
- Hedge parsley
(Torilis anthriscus),
- Knapweed (Centaurea spp.)
- Knot grass (Polygonum aviculare)
- Lavender (Lavandula officinalis)
- Lucern, (B554.21.w21)
- Mallow (Malva sylvestris),
- Nipplewort
(Lapsana communis),
- Plantains (e.g. Plantago major)
- Mayweed (Matricaria spp.)
- Nasturtium (leaves and flowers)
- Nettle (Urtica dioica)
- Plantains (Plantago spp.)
- Poppies (B554.21.w21)
- Raspberry
- Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia)
- Sea beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima)
-
Shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa pastoris)
- Sorrel (Rume acetosa)
- Sow thistle or milk thistle
(Sonchus oleraeu) - while the stalks are still tender and
juicy. (B621.III.w3)
- Trefoil
(Trifolium sp.)
- Vetches (Vicia sp.)
- Watercress (Nasturtium
officinale).
- Wild carrots
(Daucus carota),
- Wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca)
- Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)
- Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
- (B554.21.w21)(B600.2.w2)
- Tree leaves, particularly hazel leaves and leaves from fruit trees. (B600.2.w2)
|
Herbs
- Basil
- Coriander
- Dill
- Mint (peppermint)
- Parsley
- Oregano
- Rosemary
- Sage
- Thyme
- Note: these have powerful tastes; it may take a while for
a rabbit to get used to them. (W716.Jan09.w1)
Fruits
(small amounts)
- Apple
- Apricot
- Banana (high in potassium)
- Blackberries (and leaves – excellent astringent properties)
- Blueberries
- Cherries
- Grapes
- Kiwi Fruit
- Mango
- Melon
- Nectarines
- Oranges (not the peel)
- Papaya
- Peaches
- Pears
- Pineapple
- Plums
- Raspberries (and leaves – excellent astringent properties)
- Strawberries (and leaves)
- Tomatoes (not the leaves)
|
- Note:
- Plants rich in oxalates (spinach, turnips, swede) should be fed no more
than once a week.
- Fruits (including tomatoes) and succulent vegetables such as
lettuce should be fed in moderation.
- Offer two or three different plants/vegetables daily (in
addition to grass or hay), and vary what is given; this will
reduce the risk of any item being fed in quantities which may have
toxic effects. (B600.2.w2)
- Feed only small amounts of root vegetables. (B624)
- Only moderate amounts of fruit and succulent foods such as lettuce. (B600.2.w2)
- While feeding buttercups is not recommended, small amounts found
in hay are not a problem. (B554.21.w21)
Recommended diet
Rabbits are adapted for a high-fibre diet and need plenty of
fibre both for dental health and proper functioning of the
gastro-intestinal system. The following general recommendations are made:
- New foods should always be introduced gradually. (B600.2.w2,
B601.1.w1,
B554.21.w21)
- Hay/Grass: The main bulk of the diet should be grass (fresh
or dried) and/or grass hay (e.g. Timothy hay); haylage can also be used. Hay should be
available at all times, fed ad libitum. (B600.2.w2,
B601.1.w1,
B622.4.w4,
D353,
J213.2.w4,
N12.38.w2)
- Hay is particularly important for weanlings to minimise
gastrointestinal upset. (B601.1.w1)
- Green foods: The next largest part of the diet should be
green foods such as dark green leafy vegetables. (J213.2.w4)
- Provide a variety of green food; give at least three different items per day. (B600.2.w2,
B621.I.w1,
N12.38.w2)
- Introduce new items gradually. (B602.16.w16)
- Note: fruits, lettuce, tomatoes, cucumber and other
succulent salad ingredients are not good fibre sources; feeding
these can lead to transient production of uneaten caecotrophs. (B600.2.w2)
- Concentrates: Concentrate foods (whether pellets, mix or
extruded diets) should be a small part of the diet for most
rabbits. (B622.4.w4,
J213.2.w4)
- Only small amounts (no more than 2-3% of the rabbit's body weight) of
concentrate food should be
given, once daily, with the food bowl removed after a couple of hours. (B600.2.w2)
- Only a handful a day is needed
(alongside hay and green vegetables) for an average-sized rabbit.
(B622.4.w4)
- 0.25 cup of high fibre pellets per day for an average 2.3 kg
(5 lb) rabbit. (J213.2.w4)
- 26 g of high-fibre (25% fibre) pellets per kilogram body
weight. (J284.79.w1)
- Hay should be fed even if the rabbit is eating a
"complete" rabbit food with a high percentage of fibre; it has behavioural benefits and is
good for the teeth as well as providing good long fibre particles. (B600.2.w2,
D353,
J60.9.w1)
- Note: Feeding hay, grass and vegetable in addition to a food which
states it is complete and can be fed as the sole food, will not be
harmful. (B600.2.w2)
- If feeding pellets, feed one which is high in fibre (at least
18%) and does not contain too much protein (up to 16%).
(B622.4.w4)
- If feeding
a mix, make sure the rabbit eats all the parts of the mix; do not
keep topping the food bowl up with new mix and letting the rabbit
eat only preferred items, as this can mean it eats an unbalanced
diet.
(B622.4.w4)
- Foods rich
in carbohydrates (including fruits and carrots) should not be fed, or only very small amounts should be
given, as treats. (B622.4.w4,
D353)
(B554.21.w21,
B600.2.w2,
B601.1.w1,
B602.16.w16,
B622.4.w4
D353,
J60.9.w1,
J213.2.w4,
J284.79.w1,
N12.38.w2
W718.Jan09.w1
Note: most domestic rabbits do not get a lot of exercise, so they are at
greater risk of getting too fat. Obese rabbits are much more likely to
develop a wide range of problems including skeletal problems and (because
they cannot groom properly) skin problems.
- If fed a complete pellet diet, a medium-sized adult
rabbit needs about 90 - 120 g (3 - 4 oz, 2/3 cup) of pelleted food per
day. (B604.2.w2)
-
Food requirement is also affected by temperature, therefore about 184 g
for a rabbit at 5 °C but only 125 g for a rabbit at 30 °C. (B604.2.w2)
- For a pregnant or lactating doe, increase the amount fed as
needed; the concentrate food should contain at least 16% protein.
Some alfalfa can be given to make sure the diet contains enough
calcium. (B622.4.w4)
- For weanlings, hay should be fed, and a mix or pellet with at
least 16% protein, together with small amounts of green food. Some
alfalfa can be given to make sure the diet contains enough
calcium. (B622.4.w4)
- Rabbits normally eat the right amount of food to satisfy their calorie
requirements. Therefore in winter, if outside in cooler temperatures, they
will eat more, and it may be appropriate to feed a lower protein diet. (B604.2.w2,
B554.21.w21)
See also:
Water
- Water should always be available. (B601.1.w1,
B602.16.w16,
B622.4.w4,
D353)
- Rabbits need 120 mL of water per kilogram bodyweight per day,
increasing as the ambient temperature increases, so an average rabbit may
drink 335 mL at 5 °C but 450 mL per day at 30 °C. (B604.2.w2)
- More water is needed
if the rabbit's diet is high in protein (to remove urea from the body) or
high in fibre. (B604.2.w2)
- Water drinking bottle tubes and automatic watering devices should
be checked daily to make sure they are working properly. (B602.16.w16)
- Note: in winter in outdoor enclosures, water bowls and
particularly water drinking bottles may freeze. These should be
checked at least twice daily and unfrozen as required - if water
bottles are used, a second bottle is useful so the unfrozen bottle can
be provided while the frozen bottle is thawed. (N34.Winter07.w2)
- A couple of drops of medicinal glycerine added to the water can
prevent it freezing. (N34.Winter07.w1)
Wild lagomorphs
-
The nutrient requirements of wild lagomorphs, unlike domestic rabbits,
have not been determined, but domestic rabbit requirements would provide
the best physiological model. (B64.22.w8,
V.w16)
- Diets for wild lagomorphs should mimic as closely as possible both the
form and nutrient content of the wild diet. In particular, it is important
to ensure that sufficient fibre is fed.
- Good breeding success has been seen in lagomorphs kept in large,
naturally vegetated pens in which they ate natural vegetation as the
main or whole diet.
The following are examples of diets which have been used for captive
wild lagomorphs.
-
Lepus europaeus - Brown hare
kept for reproductive research (for breeding centres for wild hare
restocking) were fed "carrot, hay, green fodder, oats and a
full-component mixture for rabbits" plus fruit tree branches
and willow branches. (J372.X2008.w1)
- For breeding for repopulation purposes,
Lepus europaeus - Brown
hares have been maintained on fresh grass and
commercial rabbit pellets, with ad libitum water. (J540.32.w1)
-
Romerolagus diazi - Volcano rabbit:
- At Jersey Zoo, UK, these were provided with a variety of foods.
In addition to hay and commercial rabbit pellets (and water),
always available, a selection of fresh foods were given daily:
lettuce, apple, carrots, banana, pear, avocado and occasionally
other fruits and vegetables, and leaves and shoots, with elm,
hawthorn, willow and bamboo all being particularly appreciated. (J51.19.w1)
- At Chapultepec Zoo, Mexico City, commercial rabbit pellets,
fresh carrots and alfalfa were given; the rabbits also ate the
zacaton (bundle-grass) in their enclosures. (J23.26.w2)
-
Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy
rabbit were fed on grain-forage pellets containing 35.6 -
49.3% neutral detergent fibre and 15.8 - 21.3% crude protein, plus
daily fresh greens (e.g. chicory, parsley, clover, dandelion, lettuce;
about 40 g per day in the breeding season, 5 g per
day the rest of the year, and clippings of big sagebrush Artemisia
tridentata tridentata, 25 g per day during the breeding season and
15 g per day the rest of the year. (J332.87.w1)
- In large pens the rabbits also eat available growing vegetation
(planted domestic grasses and bunch grasses, and
"volunteer" weedy herbaceous plants. Note:
rabbits in these pens grow faster than those in smaller pens
without such natural vegetation, even though fresh greens are
provided daily in the smaller pens. (D373,
V.w134)
- Breeding of Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits was more successful on
a higher protein diet. (W739.Jan09.w1)
- When Columbia Basin
Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy
rabbits were brought into captivity, it was noted
that sagebrush would be needed in the diet; this is a major part
of the winter diet of these rabbits in the wild. (D370)
- Sagebrush is not essential in the diet, but when offered to
pygmy rabbits alongside pellets, it was eaten whatever the
quantity and quality of pellets provided. (J537.32.w1)
- In sufficiently large enclosures with natural vegetation, additional
provision of food may not be necessary: e.g. for
Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit
in enclosures of 0.5 - 0.57 hectares (larger than the typical home
range (0.33 ha) for the species), with natural vegetation (forbes,
grasses and brambles), no additional food was required and the rabbits
bred successfully; the pens did not appear overgrazed. (B623.w1)
- Three adult male riparian brush rabbits Sylvilagus bachmani
riparius (Sylvilagus bachmani - Brush rabbit)
in individual pens were fed with pelleted rabbit food, alfalfa hay
and timothy grass hay ad libitum; there was also a strip of
grass (commercial grass sod) 16 x 3 ft approx. in each enclosure.
(D377)
-
Bunolagus monticularis - Riverine rabbit
kept in 50 x 50 m enclosures within their natural habitat were fed
with lucern and with rabbit concentrate pellets. (V.w142)
- At Denver Zoological Gardens, pikas (Ochotona princeps - American pika)
fed on natural vegetation in their enclosure, including grass,
dandelions, clover and fireweed (Kochia scoparia), supplemented
with slices of apple, lettuce, and commercial rabbit pellets. (J23.15.w6)
- Prior to this, they were fed chopped lettuce (handful), alfalfa
leaves and stems (small handful), sliced apples (half cup),
commercial rabbit pellets (1/4 cup) and vitamins; this was given
twice daily. (J23.14.w6,
P1.1972.w2)
- For newly captured
Ochotona princeps - American pika, dandelion leaves and apple slices were
acceptable feedstuffs, with a subsequent gradual changeover to the
artificial diet. (J23.14.w6,
P1.1972.w2)
-
Ochotona dauurica - Daurian
pika in captivity in Japan were fed a commercial diet for pikas, plus
fresh vegetables, including root vegetables, and fruits. Later,
breeding pairs were given the commercial diet plus green grass. (J511.47.w1)
-
Ochotona princeps - American pika
kept in individual cage-dens were fed commercial rabbit food plus
daily dandelion leaves or lettuce. Those kept in large enclosures, one
acre in size, with "shortgrass prairie vegetative type",
were initially given dandelions, but stopped eating these as they
started eating the vegetation growing in the enclosures. (J331.89.w1)
-
Ochotona curzoniae - Plateau pika
(black-lipped pika) have been kept successfully (gaining weight,
maintaining healthy function of the gastro-intestinal system) on grass
hay or haylage plus herbs, carrots, lettuce and a guinea pig diet (including
vitamin C). (N37.2.w1,
V.w30)
- Water should always be available ad libitum. This is
particularly important in warm conditions. (B64.22.w8)
Water
- Water should always be available ad libitum. This is
particularly important in warm conditions. (B64.22.w8)
- Note: unlike domestic rabbits, wild lagomorphs feeding on
green vegetation may not drink free-standing water. (J47.9.w3)
- Water should be provided in bowls; wild lagomorphs may not use
drinking bottles (e.g.
Brachylagus idahoensis - Pygmy
rabbit will not use them. (V.w134)
|
|
Ferret Consideration
|
There is little definite data on the specific nutritional requirements of
ferrets. However, more work has been done on a closely-related species,
Mustela vison - American mink,
and it is generally considered that ferrets will have similar requirements
to mink for both macro- and micronutrients. It is important to remember
that unlike mink, ferrets do not particularly like the taste of fish; if
fed a high-fish diet intended for mink, ferrets may reject it.
For feeding ferrets, it is important to consider the energy
concentration plus protein digestibility and amino acid composition. (B232.3.w3)
- Ferrets need a concentrated, high protein, high fat, low fibre diet,
with fat as the main source of calories. (J213.2.w5)
- An adequate maintenance diet is 30 - 35% crude protein, 15 - 18%
fat. (J213.2.w5)
- A lactating jill needs double her normal intake of food. Constant
access to high-quality food plus constant access to water is
essential. (J213.2.w5)
- The diet should be high in fat for energy, with a high content of
good-quality meat protein, and should be low in carbohydrate and
fibre. (B602.1.w1)
- A whole-prey diet, or a balanced fresh or freeze-dried carnivore
diet can be used. (B602.1.w1)
- Dry kibble diets are commonly fed. Cereals are included to maintain
the shape of the kibble. If excessive, vegetable proteins from cereals
lead to urolithiasis. (B602.1.w1)
- On a kibble diet the stools are formed but soft and higher in
volume. (B602.1.w1)
Energy
- Ferrets require about 200 - 300 kcal (840-1260 kJ) per kg bodyweight daily. This would be
equal to about 40 - 70 g of a high-quality diet. For reproduction and
growth, a diet containing nearly 5,000 kcal (21,000 kJ) per kilogram of diet may
be needed. (B232.3.w3,
B627.5.w5)
- Diets which have been shown to be nutritionally adequate, supporting
gestation, lactation and growth (i.e. have "sustained
reproduction and growth of generations of healthy kits"),
contain 3.9 - 4.58 kcal metabolisable energy per gram. (J213.2.w5)
Fat
- Fats enhance texture, absorb and retain flavour, enhance
palatability and, by delaying gastric emptying, may contribute to a
feeling of satiety. (B232.3.w3,
B627.5.w5)
- A diet which is 15 - 20% fat is adequate for pets; up to 30% may be
needed for growing or lactating ferrets. (J213.2.w5)
- At least 20% for growing kits. (J213.2.w5)
- Diets should be 18-20% fat, with up to 15% as unsaturated fats
including essential fatty acids e.g. linoleic acid. (B232.3.w3)
- Note: unsaturated fatty acids easily become rancid; this makes
the food unpalatable. Additionally, more vitamin E is required. (B232.3.w3)
- Addition of excessive fat (e.g. a daily teaspoon full of "coat
conditioner" high in linoleic and other fatty acids) can reduce
intake of the normal diet to a point where protein and possibly
vitamins and minerals may be deficient. (J213.2.w5)
- Commercially-available diets on which ferrets have
been maintained with apparent success have contained 9 - 28% fat
and 7 - 15% linoleic acid. (B627.5.w5)
Protein and amino acids
- A high protein diet is needed. For kits, at least 30% and preferably
35% protein is required, and for reproduction, 35 - 40% protein is
needed; lower protein diets lead to reduced conception rates, litter
size and kit survival. (J213.2.w5)
- A 30-40% protein diet is recommended, with at least 35% protein
for breeding and growing ferrets. (B232.3.w3)
- Protein must also be highly (85 - 90%) digestible. (J213.2.w5)
- Note: protein in many grocery-store cat foods is less than 75%
digestible. (J213.2.w5)
- It is assumed that, as for other species, argenine and methionine
are essential amino acids. (J213.2.w5)
- It is recommended that taurine should be provided in ferret diets at
the same concentration as in premium diets for cats. (J213.2.w5)
- It is assumed that, as for cats, arachidonic acid (found only in
animal tissues) is essential for ferrets. (J213.2.w5)
- Meat based diets are not likely to be deficient in arachidonic acid
or taurine. (J213.2.w5)
- Food intake is affected by the energy content of the food, therefore
protein content must be considered in relation to energy content, and
taking account of the digestibility of the protein and its amino acid
content. As the caloric density of the feed increases, the required
protein percentage also increases. Based on data for mink, growing
kits to 16 weeks of age require a calorie-to-protein ratio of about 13
(42% protein for a diet containing 550 kcal per 100 g feed) and after
this age, a calorie:protein ratio of 17 or possibly as high as 21 (36%
protein, down to 26% protein) may be used. Commercially-available
ferret diets provide calorie-to-protein ratios of 9 - 14 and about 34
- 47% protein. (B627.5.w5)
- Diets high in plant-sourced proteins are associated with
urolithiasis (Urolithiasis
in Lagomorphs and Ferrets).
(B232.3.w3)
Carbohydrates
- Ferrets do not efficiently utilise carbohydrates, particularly
complex carbohydrates, as an energy source. (J213.2.w5)
- A treat such as raisins, which are high in sugar, should be fed only
in very small amounts (a few raisins a day, not a handful), or consumption
of the main, balanced, diet will be reduced, leading to
deficiencies in protein and essential fatty acid intake. (J213.2.w5)
- Ferrets can effectively use dextrin, maltose and glucose. If the
diet contains more than 50% of calories as sucrose, measurable amounts
of fructose and sucrose may be found in the urine. Commercial diets
for ferrets contain 22 - 44% carbohydrate on a dry matter basis. (B627.5.w5)
- Disaccharides are digested well, but ferrets have only a limited
capacity to digest complex carbohydrates. If fat and protein levels
are adequate, there is no real need for carbohydrate in the diet. (B232.3.w3)
Micronutrients
- It is assumed that, like mink, ferrets have the same requirements
for minerals as most other mammals. (J213.2.w5)
- The calcium:phosphorus ratio should be at least 1:1; ratios in diets
which have been shown to be appropriate for growth and reproduction
were 1.12:1 to 1.45:1. (J213.2.w5)
- Commercially available ferret diets provide a calcium:phosphorus
ratio of 1.2:1 to 1.7:1. (B627.5.w5)
- Vitamin E
needs to be supplemented if a raw meat/fish diet including
rancid fats is fed. Pet ferrets fed high-quality pelleted diets are
unlikely to need vitamin E supplements as these diets already contain
excess vitamin E. (J213.2.w5)
- Note: it is generally recommended (for all species) that
there should be at least 0.5 - 0.6 mg tocopherol per gram of
polyunsaturated fatty acid in the diet. Commercially available
ferret diets exceed this and provide about 3 - 15 IU vitamin E per
kg body weight daily. (B627.5.w5)
- A diet low in vitamin E predisposes to the development of
Nutritional Steatitis in Ferrets
(yellow fat disease). (B232.3.w3)
- Ferrets can convert beta-carotene to
Vitamin A
(B627.5.w5,
J213.2.w5), but do so
inefficiently (J213.2.w5), therefore the diet should contain added vitamin A (in
the natural diet, this would be provided in the liver of the prey). (J213.2.w5)
- Commercially available ferret diets contain vitamin A such that ferrets
will consume 1,000 - 4,200 IU per kg bodyweight daily; no toxicity has
been observed in pregnant females eating diets containing the higher
amounts. (B627.5.w5)
- Commercially available ferret diets provide 65 - 325 IU vitamin D
per kg bodyweight daily. The requirement for vitamin D will vary
depending on calcium and phosphorus intake and duration of exposure to
sunlight (UV light), as well as age, sex and physiological status. (B627.5.w5)
- Commercially available ferret diets contain 8.4 - 97.8 mg
Thiamine (B Vitamin)
per kg dry diet. Thiamine requirements are increased if the diet
included fish containing
thiaminase. (B627.5.w5)
- Commercially available ferret diets provide more than the riboflavin
requirement for most species. (B627.5.w5)
Fibre
- Ferret diets should be low in fibre. (B232.3.w3)
General notes
- Since good-quality meat protein is expensive, it is unlikely that a
cheap food will contain high-quality protein. (J213.2.w5)
- The basic information on crude protein, crude fat, fibre and
moisture do not indicate the quality of the ingredients. (J213.2.w5)
- To correct an inadequate diet in kits, a mixture of pureed raw liver
or hamburger, egg yolk and milk is effective. (J213.2.w5)
- Note: it is normal for ferrets to increase food intake by
about 30% in winter (short daylength), deposit subcutaneous fat and
gain weight. When day length increases in spring, food intake
decreases, the stored fat is metabolised and the ferret loses weight
again. In the absence of photoperiod changes, some ferrets may stay
either lean or "pudgy" year-round. (J213.2.w5)
- For kits when they are just weaned, high-quality pelleted diet can
be mixed with water with cooked eggs and animal fat then added to
return the protein and calorie density to the same level as in the
original dry pellet; this should be offered once or twice daily. (J213.2.w5)
- The same diet can be offered to nursing jills, starting with a
teaspoonful at a time, and providing as much as the jill wants to
eat by the time she has been nursing kits for three weeks. (J213.2.w5)
Appropriate foods
Diets specifically designed for ferrets, or high-quality cat diets can be
fed. Alternatively, a traditional, more natural diet of whole rodents and
rabbits may be given. (B339.9.w9)
- Pelleted complete diets
- Pelleted diets designed for mink, with 30 - 35% meat-based protein,
and 20% animal fat, are often fed to ranched ferrets. (J213.2.w5)
- Pelleted diets designed for ferrets can be used if available. (B232.3.w3,
B651.5.w5)
- Some premium dry cat foods and pelleted diets formulated
specifically for ferrets have been shown to be adequate to allow
growth and reproduction. These include Marshall Premium Ferret, Purina
High Density Ferret, Iams Kitten Food (original formula), Totally
Ferret and Hills Science Diet Feline Growth. (J213.2.w5)
- Commercially available complete ferret diets in the UK include
those produced by Suprete Petfoods, James Wellbeloved, Alpha,
Gilbertson & Page, Bephar and Chudleys. (D400)
- Foods (e.g. premium pelleted cat foods and ferret foods) in
which the first three ingredients are meat, poultry or meat or
poultry meals probably contain adequate protein. (J213.2.w5)
- Ferrets will eat much larger quantities of low-quality foods, in
trying to consume adequate nutrients. (J213.2.w5)
- Dry foods should be fed, rather than tinned diets, because of their
higher as-fed energy and nutrient density. On a dry-matter basis,
canned foods contain higher levels of protein and fat than do dry
foods, but pelleted diets contain about 10% moisture while canned
diets contain about 78% moisture. Pelleted diets are also better for
the teeth. (J213.2.w5)
- Ferrets develop less calculus if fed on pelleted rather than
canned diets. (B339.9.w9)
- For older ferrets, pelleted foods can be mixed with water, giving a
softer diet but with a higher concentration of nutrients (on a dry
matter basis) than is found in tinned foods. (J213.2.w5)
- Note: ferrets on dry diets can be prone to obesity unless
their body weight and food intake are monitored. (B631.17.w17)
- If specialist ferret diets are not available, high
quality dry cat or kitten diets can be used. (B631.17.w17)
- Dry cat foods with an appropriate protein level can be given; small
amounts of meat or tinned cat food can be added. (B232.3.w3)
- Suitable whole prey:
- A diet of appropriate whole prey is likely to provide the
correct nutrition for a ferret. (B652.5.w5)
- Whole-carcasses can make up the whole diet or part of the
diet (e.g. given twice a week). (B652.5.w5)
- Rodents and rabbits (whole). (B339.9.w9,
B631.17.w17,
B651.5.w5)
-
Whole chicks can be given, but tend to
be messy. (B631.17.w17)
- Frozen rodents tend to be high in fat; this can lead to
an overweight ferret. (B631.17.w17)
- Ferrets used for hunting may be given fresh rabbit; it
is thought this may motivate the ferret. (B631.17.w17)
- The guts can be removed before the carcass is fed, but
the remainder of the internal organs should be fed; the
skin should not be removed. (B651.5.w5)
- If feeding a small number of ferrets with a large
carcass (e.g. rabbit), provide a portion of the carcass
(with skin etc.) at a time; do not leave the whole carcass
when it may go rotten before being eaten. If there are at
least six ferrets, or a litter of kits eating meat, then a
whole rabbit could be fed at one time. (B651.5.w5)
- It is important to make sure that the prey item is
fresh, or frozen when fresh then thoroughly thawed. (B652.5.w5)
- Chicks, mice or rats should be from
disease-free sources; these can be obtained from e.g. reptile food
suppliers. (B602.1.w1)
- Note:
- On a whole-prey diet, the stools are low-volume and firm. (B602.1.w1)
- Frozen carcasses may lose vitamins during defrosting;
consider supplementation. (B631.17.w17)
- Supplement pregnant jills with calcium/vitamin D3 when
feeding carcasses. (B631.17.w17)
- Raw meat goes off quickly in summer; this can be a
problem particularly if the ferret stores food. (D397-
full text included,
D400
- full text included)
- Muscle meat and offal:
- It is important not to just give muscle meat; this is
not nutritionally balanced. (B631.17.w17)
Appropriate snacks and treats
- Supplements/snacks such as raisins or coat conditioners should be
limited to a maximum of 10% of the ferret's daily calorie
intake. For example, 1.0 mL of coat conditioner, or less than a
teaspoonful of raisins. (J213.2.w5)
- Small amounts of cooked chicken/rabbit meat and offal
can be given as treats when a ferret is on a complete
kibble diet. (D397-
full text included,
D400
- full text included)
- Treats such as soft-moist meat or liver snacks specifically made as
cat/ferret snacks generally are appropriate treats. The nutritional
content should be checked (remembering to convert from "as
fed" to a dry matter basis). (J213.2.w5)
- Other appropriate snacks are: one inch from a tube of Nutrical; a
few teaspoonfuls of a human high-calorie, high-protein supplement,
human baby meat foods which do not contain any carbohydrates; whole
cooked egg or egg yolk; small amounts of raw meat/liver. (J213.2.w5)
- Canned foods can be used as a treat, to sick ferrets to encourage
eating, and to hide medicines, but should not be used as the main
diet. (J213.2.w5)
- Canned foods alone do not provide adequate protein, and may increase
dental calculus. (B232.3.w3)
- Fresh raw organ meat or muscle meat, and raw egg, can be used as
supplements to dry kibble. (B602.1.w1)
- Note: muscle meat and liver are poor sources of calcium;
a diet of meat only results in calcium deficiency. (J213.2.w5)
- A diet of raw liver only causes hypervitaminosis A. (J213.2.w5)
- Raw meat goes off quickly in summer; this can be a
problem particularly if the ferret stores food. (D397-
full text included,
D400
- full text included)
- Beaten egg mixed with cat milk. (D400
- full text included) Egg yolk. (D397-
full text included)
- Small amounts of cod liver oil (D397-
full text included); this can be smeared on fingers for the ferret
to lick off (liked by some ferrets). (D400
- full text included)
Inappropriate foods
- Cheap cat foods do not fulfil the nutritional requirements of
ferrets. (J213.2.w5)
- Foods (e.g. generic and grocery store cat foods) in which ground
yellow corn (maize) is the first ingredient, with soybean meal as
the main source of protein, or which contain meat by-products as
the first ingredient, but cereals as the next several ingredients
(and with high amounts of carbohydrates), are not likely to
contain adequate digestible meat-based protein. (J213.2.w5)
- Dog foods, even those of high quality, do not provide adequate
nutrition for ferrets. (J213.2.w5)
- Two diets which were associated with poor reproductive performance
and development of urolithiasis in ferrets had the following
characteristics: (J213.2.w5)
- 1) guaranteed analysis: crude protein 31.0%, crude fat 16.0%,
fibre 3.0%, ash 8.0%, moisture 11.0%, carbohydrate 31.0%. The
first ingredient was low-quality poultry meal and the next two
ingredients were cereals (ground wheat and ground yellow corn). (J213.2.w5)
- 2) guaranteed analysis: crude protein 30.0%, crude fat 8.0%,
fibre 4.5%, ash 6.3%, moisture 12.0%, carbohydrate 39.2%. The
first three ingredients were whole kernel corn, soybean meal and
corn gluten meal, with poultry by-product meal as the fourth
ingredient and whole wheat as the fifth. (J213.2.w5)
- Canned foods should not be used as the main diet. On a dry-matter
basis, canned foods contain higher levels of protein and fat than do
dry foods. However, canned diets contain about 78% water, compared
with about 10% in dry diets. A ferret (particularly a growing or
lactating ferret) will not be able to eat enough high-moisture canned
diet to meet their nutritional requirements. Additionally, it is less
good for the teeth. (J213.2.w5)
- Processed meats such as sausage and bacon are not suitable. (B631.17.w17)
- Bread-and-milk is not a suitable diet. (B652.5.w5)
- Ferrets may enjoy foods such as fruits and vegetables, but do not
digest these properly. (J213.2.w5)
- Feeding on fruits should be avoided as they may lead to
decreased consumption of healthy food. (B602.1.w1)
Water
- Water should always be available. Ferrets drink about three rimes as
much water as dry matter. (B602.1.w1,
B631.17.w17,
B652.5.w5,
J213.2.w5,
D397-
full text included,
D401
- full text included)
- An adult ferret is likely to drink 75 - 100 mL water daily.
Water should always be available, ad lib. (B232.3.w3)
- Constant fresh water is particularly important if a dry (pellet)
diet is fed. (B339.9.w9,
B631.17.w17)
- Ferrets prefer drinking from a water dish. A heavy dish is
recommended, as ferrets often rest their feet on the edge of the
dish while drinking. The dish should be cleaned and refilled two
or three times a day. (J213.2.w5)
- A clean cat litter tray weighted down by a brick is a
practical solution. (D401
- full text included)
- Ferrets also like to play in the water, making it important to
use a bowl difficult to overturn. (B602.1.w1)
- A drinking bottle of fresh water should be available at all
times. (J213.2.w5)
- Ferrets will drink more in hot weather. (B652.5.w5)
- Avoid using galvanised water containers, due to the risk of
Zinc Toxicity. (B232.3.w3)
- In winter, water containers may freeze. This is a particular
problem when using a drinking bottle with a narrow spout. (D401)
- Check the water several times a day in winter. (D401)
- A tray with a large surface area is less likely to freeze up
than is a drinking bottle. (D401)
- About 15 mL (a atblespoon) of olive oil can be added to one
litre of water. This will float on the water and help prevent it
from freezing, but it is still necessary to check the water. (D401)
- Do not add salt, de-icer or any other chemical to the
water to prevent it from freezing; these may seriously harm your
ferret. (D401)
|
|
Bonobo Consideration
|
The diet provided for bonobos should provide physical and psychological
stimulation as well as the required nutrients. (D386.3.3.w3c)
- The exact nutrient composition of the diet of wild bonobos has not
been determined. (D386.3.3.w3c)
- All the great apes require vitamin
C in their diets; except for this they have no unusual nutrient
requirements. (B336.39.w39)
- The amount of vitamin C required by primates is estimated as 2
mg/kg per day. (B10.44.w44d)
- Note: Include food used for behavioural enrichment when daily
dietary intake is calculated, to avoid overfeeding or nutritional
imbalance. (B336.39.w39)
Fruits, vegetables (including roots and tubers), browse and monkey chow
may be combined to form the diet. It is noted that the variety of fruits
available for feeding to captive bonobos is limited compared with the
diversity in the wild, and that terrestrial herbaceous vegetation is also
important in the wild diet. (D386.3.3.w3c)
Main diet
In general, great apes are fed commercially prepared biscuits together
with vegetables, fruit, browse and vitamins. (B336.39.w39)
The main diet supplied to bonobos in North America is based on
carrots, various tubers (e.g. potato, sweet potato), celery, apples,
pears, oranges, grapes, Romaine lettuce, bananas, green beans and raisins
with other vegetables and fruits including kale, corn on the cob, collard
greens, kiwi fruit, turnip, endive, broccoli, mustard greens, onion, melon,
green pepper, tomato, peanuts, yams (cooked or raw), spinach, sunflower
seeds and papaya. These are mainly given raw, either whole or
chopped. (D386.3.4.w3d)
In some zoos, a limited number of items are given daily with additional
items varied over the week. (D386.3.4.w3d)
Protein foods given include egg, pelleted food (e.g. Purine Hi-Pro
Monkey Chow, Zu/Preem Science Diet), curd cheese, meat, a "porridge"
at Cologne Zoo ("curd cheese, skimmed milk, cooked beef or chicken,
dried dog food, monkey pellets, roasted soya beans, sunflower seeds,
wheat, cooked rice, cooked potatoes, cooked eggs"), milk,
monkey-cake, cooked mince meat.
Browse
- A variety of plant materials have been supplied to bonobos as
browse, including:
- Mulberry (Morus alba)
- Crown vetch
- Viburnum
- Ginger
- Banana (Musa sp.)
- Sugar cane
- Honeysuckle
- Grape vine
- Willow
- Rhubarb
- Maple
- Willow
- Weeping willow
- Poplar
- Ash
- Hazelnut
- Linden
- Cotoneaster
- Oak
- Ficus (including e.g. Ficus benjamina, Ficus
rubiginosa, Ficus thonningi, Ficus rosa-sinensis)
- Bamboo
- Georgia cane
- Acacia
- Ensete sp. (Banana)
- Harpephyllum kaffra [? Harpephyllum kaffrai - Wild
plum]
- Whole maize plants
- Tetrastigma
- Lucerne
(D386.3.4.w3d)
Foraging foods
A variety of foods have been scattered for bonobos to forage,
including:
- Sunflower seeds, peanuts, popcorn, spaghetti, noodles, biscuits,
cereals, baked chips, "party mix", brazil nuts, cashew nuts,
Pretty Birds HI-Energy and diced or shredded vegetables; two cups per
bonobo, with three or four of the items mixed at a given feeding.
(Cincinnati Zoo). (D386.3.4.w3d)
- Popcorn (1-2 cups per bonobo), raisins(20 per bonobo), cereal (half
cup per bonobo) and peanuts(10-15 per bonobo). (Milwaukee Zoo). (D386.3.4.w3d)
- Raisins, sunflower seeds, apples, air-popped popcorn. (San Diego
Zoo). (D386.3.4.w3d)
Supplements
- Some collections add daily vitamins/supplements to the diet, such as
children's chewable multi-vitamins (one per bonobo, Cincinnati Zoo),
Super Acerola vitamin C (500 mg, Columbus Zoo), Mazuri Vita-Zu vitamin
supplement (Columbus Zoo), Vidaylin vitamins (Milwaukee Zoo); Minamino
syrup [essential amino acids, B vitamins, manganese, copper and iron]. (D386.3.4.w3d)
Treats
Items which have been used as "treats" for training, rewards
and administration of medication include grapes, raisins, sunflower seeds,
peanuts, peanut butter, apples, bananas, pieces of melon, crackers, sugar,
fat-free cookies, low-fat chips, pretzels and party mix. (D386.3.4.w3d)
- Note: A peanut allergy has been observed in a bonobo at
Milwaukee Zoo and a banana allergy in a bonobo at Leipzig Zoo. (D386.3.4.w3d)
Specific food items used for Behavioural Enrichment
Note: the following are examples; normal parts of the diet can be used
as enrichment, for example by leaving large fruits or vegetables whole, by
scattering food for foraging, or placing items into containers from which
they have to be retrieved by various methods.
(D386.3.3.w3c)
- Coconut, cake, candy and honey have been used in environmental
enrichmetn at Cincinnati Zoo.
- At Columbus Zoo, various browse items
including ash (Fraxinus) leaves and branches, willow (Salix
spp.), ficus, bamboo, pampas grass, forsythia, bananas, grapes and
vitamins in enrichment.
- In Fort Worth Zoo, peanut butter, yoghurt, and
oatmeal were used, smeared throughout the exhibit.
- In San Diego Zoo, as
well as using foraging foods, honey in log holes was used to encourage
tool use for foraging. In Milwaukee Zoo, herbs, spices and scent
extracts, Kool-aid, juice, cereals, sugar-free Jell-O and (rarely)
sugar-free chewing gum were provided.(D386.3.4.w3d)
- In Planckendael Zoo, honey, pinda-cheese (peanut butter), small nuts or seeds are
used in holes in a wooden block, raisins seeds or nuts are placed in
plastic bottles filled with woodwool, cheese is smeared on items.
Other
- Bonobos have been noted to eat materials such as hay, sticks and
alfalfa. (D386.3.4.w3d)
Water
Water should always be available ad libitum. (D386.5.1.w5a)
- Water has been provided to bonobos in pools, using "Lixit"
nipple-like devices (water flows only when the animal placing pressure
on the device while drinking), bowls, a waterfall, a stream and hoses.
(D386.3.3.w3c)
- Note: Pregnant and lactating bonobos have been noted to leave
their night nests to go and drink.
(D386.3.3.w3c)
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Associated techniques linked from Wildpro
|
|
Convalescent
diets / Nutritional support
|
In providing nutritional support for convalescent animals it is important
to calculate carefully the actual nutrient requirements of each
individual.
- Nutrient requirements will vary
depending on the size of the animal, its general stage of life (e.g. growing versus adult)
and extra requirements for healing, fighting infection and regaining lost weight.
- Stress and
trauma cause the release of hormones (including catecholamines,
corticosteroids, glucagon)
which act to increase the metabolic rate, with both gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
being increased if ingested energy is not sufficient to meet the increased energy
requirement. The increase in metabolic rate is in proportion to the degree of insult (i.e.
greater increase with more severe injury or infection). There is a rapid oxidation
of fat
used for energy, and body protein
may be broken down to meet the increased energy needs. Additionally, there is an increased
requirement for protein
for tissue repair and/or for the production of components of the immune system, both blood
cells and antibodies.
- In casualty animals, it
must be remembered that by the time the animal is presented for treatment, several days may
have passed since the time of the original insult; the animal may already have used most
of its reserves by the time of presentation - particularly smaller
individuals.
- Note: recently captured animals (including animals presenting for
rehabilitation), may not eat normally (or at all), particularly when
offered unfamiliar foods. (B206.4.w4,
B469.3.w3)
- In social species, it is important to remember that an individual
separated from the group may not eat properly. (B469.3.w3)
PREPARED CONVALESCENT DIETS:
(PLEASE NOTE: This dietary information is replicated from the
diet suppliers, or from referenced sources. They are provided as information and a
decision to use a specific diet must be made using professional judgment. Wildpro
does
not endorse any particular diet at present, until full nutritional evaluations are
available)
- Human enteral products may be bought in liquid form. These may be
useful in the feeding of convalescent carnivorous or omnivorous species.
Their calorific content may vary from 1.0 to 2.0 kcal/mL, and the 2.0k
cal/mL products
should be used to reduce the volume which must be fed. Protein
powder may be added to diets if necessary to increase the level of protein
before feeding.
- Monomeric diets (containing fatty
acids, amino
acids and sugars) may
be used initially, as these have been designed for easy absorption.
- Polymeric diets are also available, and many are
isotonic, which reduces the risk of diarrhoea developing.
- Baby foods may be useful. These are usually high in carbohydrates,
with some vegetable fats, and
are usually low in protein
(e.g. Milupa baby foods, containing 422
kcal per 100 gm).
- Complan (Glaxo) may be used. (B156.15.w15)
- Convalescent diets designed for cats and dogs may be useful (e.g. Hill's
a/d) in feeding of convalescent carnivorous or omnivorous, but not
herbivorous, species.
(B156.15.w15, B206.4.w4,
B469.3.w3, V.w5)
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Bear Consideration
|
As omnivores, probably most
convalescent diets could be used for bears.
- Commercial baby food or
Hill's
I/D may be given. (B16.9.w9)
- Fruit-flavoured products might be very acceptable to most bear
species.
- Convalescent diets designed for cats or dogs might be most suitable
for
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear.
- For North American bears undergoing rehabilitation, the following foods
have been suggested: high-quality named-brand dry dog food, Ferret diet 5280, National®
Gro-Fur
Mink Pellets, Nutro Max Puppy®, puppy Eukanuba® or ZuPreem Omnivore
Diet. (B468.8.w8p)
|
Lagomorph Consideration
|
Domestic rabbit
- While a rabbit is hospitalised, its food and water intake (and urine
and faecal output) should be monitored. It is very important to ensure
that the rabbit is eating (and drinking) properly.
- Good quality grass hay should always be available, as well as the
food the rabbit is used to (even if that is not an ideal food) and
tempting green foods such as fresh grass, dandelion
leaves, broccoli, dark green lettuce, watercress, parsley, green cabbage,
kale etc. (B601.3.w3,
J213.10.w1)
- If the rabbit is anorectic, assisted feeding is needed via syringe,
endotracheal tube etc. Various foods can be given in assisted feeding, including pelleted
complete rabbit diets ground up and mixed to a slurry with water,
liquidised vegetables, fruit-based or cereal-based baby foods (e.g.
Milupa) and proprietary products designed for assisted feeding of rabbits or
other small herbivores. (B601.3.w3,
J15.13.w7)
- Ground pellets
can be mixed with fresh greens, vegetable baby food fresh greens, and water or
juice to form a gruel. Canned
pumpkin can be added to the gruel as a palatable source of
calories and fibre. (B609.2.w2)
- Note: anorexia is a serious problem in rabbits which can be
life-threatening within 48 hours, or in a shorter time in young,
pregnant, lactating or obese rabbits. (B601.3.w3,
J15.24.w3)
- Further information on assisted feeding is provided in:
Treatment and Care (Techniques Overview)
- Supportive/Nursing Care
(B601.3.w3,
J213.1.w1,
J213.10.w1)
Prepared convalescent diets
- Convalescent diets designed for cats and dogs are based on animal
products and are not appropriate for rabbits, which are herbivores.
- Fruit-based or cereal-based baby foods (e.g. Milupa) can be used. (B601.3.w3,
B554.22.w22)
- Proprietary formulae especially designed for rabbits and/or other
small herbivores are available for assisted feeding and include:
- Science Recovery (Supreme
Petfoods): a complete food for assisted feeding and includes
high levels of protein, carbohydrate and fibre. It contains 39.31
Kcal Metabolisable Energy (ME) per 20 g sachet. One sachet is
sufficient to feed one 2.5 kg rabbit for one day. (W718.Oct08.w1)
- Fibreplex for Rabbits (Protexin): formulated with high fibre,
propiotics and prebiotics. It is designed "to encourage
normal digestion following major disruptions." (W722.Oct08.w2)
- Avipro Plus (Vetark
Professional): contains probiotics, electrolytes, dextrose, soluble fibre and high levels of vitamins A, C and E
to help stabilise the gut in stressed rabbits. (W719.Oct08.w1)
- Critical Care Formula (CCF) (Vetark
Professional): "a high energy and protein powder which can be mixed with water and given by direct administration off a spoon or via a gavage tube."
(W719.Oct08.w1)
- Critical Care for Herbivores. (Oxbow Pet Products, Murdock, NE,
USA) 10 - 15 mL/kg at least every 8-12 hours - larger volumes and
more frequently if the rabbit will take it. (B609.2.w2)
- Advanced Nutrition Support Enterals (Rock Solid Herpetoculture): a powder enteral formula designed for herbivorous reptiles. It
contains 8% fibre (lower than ideal for rabbits) and may be useful
for feeding through a nasogastric tube (where the tube diameter
limits the fibre content of the product) for two or three days. (J213.10.w1)
- Ideally, the rabbit should be given a food which includes the
indigestible fibre needed for normal gut function. Unfortunately, this
may not be possible when feeding through an endotracheal tube, and may
be difficult when feeding through a syringe with a standard tip; a
syringe with a wide-bore tip should be used if available. (B601.3.w3,
J213.10.w1)
- Note: Tempting foods should always be available while a
rabbit is on assisted feeding. (J213.10.w1)
- Probiotics, vitamins (especially B-vitamins) and even transfaunation
- by feeding a rabbit with caecoliths from a healthy rabbit - may be
useful. (B601.3.w3,
P113.2005.w3)
- Avoid high carbohydrate or high fat
nutritional supplements. (B609.2.w2)
Calculating food requirements
- It is important to calculate the rabbit's energy requirements to
determine the amount to be fed daily:
- The rabbit's approximate basal energy requirements (BER) or Basal
Metabolic Rate (BMR) can be
calculated as follows:
- 70 x (bodyweight in kg)0.75 = Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
kcal/day. For a 2.0 kg rabbit, BMR = 70 x (2.0)0.75 =
117.7 kcal/day. (B192,
J213.10.w1)
- The actual amount required will vary depending on the rabbit's
state of health and may be from 1.2 x BMR to as high as 2.0 x BMR.
During healing, the rabbit should be hypermetabolic and need more
food. However a rabbit which has been starved or stopped eating
due to gastrointestinal problems will be hypometamolic and have
reduced energy requirement. (J213.10.w1)
- Equations are available which indicate the energy requirement for
animals in different circumstances; in most circumstances the amount of energy required per day is greater than the basal
energy requirement (BER): (B192)
- Growth: 1.5-2.0 x BER
- Enclosure rest: 1.25 x BER
- Following starvation: 1.25 x BER
- Post-surgery: 1.25 x BER
- Severe burns: 1.5 - 2.0 x BER
- Sepsis: 1.5-2.0 x BER
- Trauma: 1.5 x BER
- Neoplasia (cancer) 1.5 x BER
- Hepatic (liver) disease: 1.25 x BER
- Severe renal (kidney) disease: 1.25 x BER
- (B192)
- For a debilitated rabbit, start feeding at 40 - 70% of
calculated daily energy requirement and increase to 100% over
three to five days. (J213.10.w1)
- For a rabbit in good condition, start at 75 - 100% of calculated
daily energy requirement. (J213.10.w1)
- Note: Once the caloric requirement has been calculated (kcal/day), it
is necessary to calculate the required amount of the food which is
to be given. (J213.10.w1)
This will vary depending on the food used. Use of a proprietary
formula is recommended. Formulae designed for assisted feeding
have a known caloric content.
- When an enteral formula is provided as a dry powder, the amount
needed should be calculated for the powder, before adding water,
since the amount of water added may vary. (J213.10.w1)
- The required amount should be given divided into several feeds
over the day (24 hours). (J213.10.w1)
- e.g. 10-15 mL/kg of Critical Care for Herbivores orally every 6 to 8
hours. Larger and more frequent feeds may be accepted by the
patient- feed as much as the patient will accept. (B609.2.w2)
Wild lagomorphs
- Vitamin D3 is required in lagomorphs kept without access to
daylight. (J332.10.w1)
-
Sylvilagus spp. (cottontail rabbits) have been kept on a diet
of hay and oats, with small amounts of vegetables - carrot, apple,
dandelion, lettuce). (J332.10.w1)
- The diet was supplemented with cod-liver oil; lack of this led
to poor growth, rickets and death. (J332.10.w1)
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Ferret Consideration
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- In critically ill or anorectic ferrets, assisted feeding of 12 - 25
mL (about as much as the ferret will take comfortably), 2- 4
times a day is important. The food given may be a meat-based baby food
or meat-based critical care diets for cats such as Prescription Diet
A/D, Hills Pet Products, with the volume to give calculated on a
bodyweight basis as for cats.
- Milk replacers for kittens can be used if needed for supplementary
feeding of kits.
- Ferrets with respiratory disease have a reduced sense of smell and
may find eating difficult due to inability to breath through the nose.
warm wet foods are generally most acceptable. (J213.2.w5)
- For kits, small amounts of warm food should be offered
frequently. (J213.2.w5)
- For adults, mixing Nutrical or Linotone with the regular food
may be required to increase palatability. (J213.2.w5)
- Hand-feeding of small amounts of food may be needed. (J213.2.w5)
- Many ferrets will drink mixtures of milk and egg yolk. (J213.2.w5)
- Warm meat baby foods - chicken or lamb - may be taken. (J213.2.w5)
- Ferrets which are ill and refusing solid food may take liquid diets
such as Science A/D; this may also be given via syringe or pipette. (J213.2.w5)
- A warm mash of pellets with water plus added palatable supplement or
milk and egg yolk may be useful. (J213.2.w5)
-
A high-quality diet, high in animal protein and fat,
low in carbohydrates and fibre. Suitable foods include: (J29.6.w3)
- Carnivore Care for Carnivores (Oxbow Enterprises, Inc., Lincoln,
Nebraska, USA). (J29.19.w1,
P120.2006.w6)
- Emeraid Carnivore Elemental Gavage (Lafeber Co., Cornell, Illinois,
US). (J29.19.w1)
- Eukanuba Maximum Calorie (Iams company, Dayton, Ohio, USA). (B602.2.w2,
P120.2006.w6)
-
A/D (Hills). (B232.18.w18,
B602.2.w2,
J29.6.w3)
-
Totally Ferret (Performance Foods, Dayton, Ohio,
USA). (J29.6.w3)
-
Nutritional Recovery Formula (Iams company,
Dayton, Ohio, USA). (J29.6.w3)
-
Short term (less nutritionally balanced):
-
Strained chicken or turkey based baby food. (B602.2.w2,
J29.6.w3)
-
Chicken or beef broth. (B602.2.w2)
-
Nutri-Cal (Tomlyn). (B602.2.w2)
-
Furo-Vite (Marshall Pet Products, Wolcott, New
York, USA). B602.2.w2
- To increase calories, protein and/or fat, consider adding: (J29.6.w3)
- Deliver 2.0 (Mead Johnson, Evansville, Illinois, USA). (J29.6.w3)
- Heavy (double) cream. (J29.6.w3)
- Cooked egg. (J29.6.w3)
- Goat's milk. (J29.6.w3)
- Raw beef liver. (J29.6.w3)
- Nutrical (EVSCO Pharmaceuticals, Buena, New Jersey, USA). (J29.6.w3)
- Give 5 - 20 mL three or four times daily by syringe. (J29.19.w1)
- Give 10 - 20 mL four to six times daily by syringe. (J29.6.w3)
- Give 5 - 10 mL three to four times a day. (B602.2.w2,
P120.2006.w6)
- See: Oral Medication and Syringe Feeding of Ferrets
Home-made critical care diets
- Home-made critical care diet can be produced by grinding the normal
dry diet to powder, mixing with enough water to make a gruel, then
adding premium quality canned cat food, meat baby food and
high-calorie supplement (e.g. Nutri-Cal, Evsco Pharmaceuticals, Buena,
New Jersey, USA, or Deliver 2.0, Mead Johnson Nutritionals,
Evansville, Indiana, USA) to give a batter-like consistency. (J213.7.w4)
- For anorectic ferrets, a high-protein, high-fat diet made into a
semi-liquid gruel which can be given by syringe is useful. Such
mixtures are commonly known as "Duck Soup." (J213.2.w5)
- A short-term "Duck Soup", for example for anorectic
ferrets post-surgery, can be made simply from the ferret's preferred
dry diet, ground to powder and with water added to make a gruel, plus
high-quality canned food (e.g. Science Diet Feline Growth) and enough
of an appealing supplement (e.g. Nutrical) to make it palatable. This
can be prepared then frozen in ice-cube trays, with individual cubes
thawed and warmed for feeding. (J213.2.w5)
- Other ingredients may include salt-free, sugar-free baby meats
(e.g. chicken, lamb), Ensure plus (Abbott Laboratories), Sustacal or another
high-calorie supplement (add a similar amount to the amount of
water which was added to the dry food), Linotone (Ferritone,
vitamin E (400 IU per two cups of total mixture), vitamin K (100
µg per 2 cups mixture), brewer's yeast, puppy or kitten milk
replacer, vitamin B complex, chromium (200 µg per two cups
mixture), and corn syrup. (J213.2.w5)
- First-stage pureed baby foods (chicken or turkey), or Ensure plus
(Abbott Laboratories, Ross Products Division, Columbus, Ohio, USA) can
be used short-term. Change to a more balanced product once this is
available. (J29.19.w1)
- Note: avoid products high in carbohydrate; these are not
suitable for ferrets. (B602.2.w2,
J29.19.w1)
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|
Bonobo Consideration
|
- Ensure (Abbott Nutrition) has been used as a supportive addition to the diet of an
underweight bonobo with congestive heart failure. (D386.3.4.w3d)
|
Associated techniques linked from Wildpro
|
|
|
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Species vary in
their natural feeding habits, with many herbivores feeding during the
greater part of their total period of activity, while some carnivores feed
more intermittently and consume varying amounts at a given meal (depending
on availability). (B438.24.w24)
- In the wild, most mammals would spend a considerable proportion of their time
foraging. In captivity, food is frequently presented in a nutritional but possibly
monotonous form, and may be consumable in a short period of time. This may cause
behavioural deprivation and may lead to the development of food-related
stereotypic behaviours.
- Some carnivores normally would hunt and kill a large prey animal,
gorge, and feed again from the same kill on subsequent days.
- Food is usually presented in feed bowls, troughs or similar (to
reduce spillage and associated wasting, spoiling and encouragement of vermin); this
unnatural concentration of food may lead to excessive competition between individuals,
with a risk that subordinate individuals may not get sufficient nutrition. It
is important to ensure that food are available to all individuals.
- Increasing the number
of feeding points, and spacing them at greater distances, should increase the number of
individuals able to feed at one time, and minimise competition and
conflict.
- Separate or protected feeding stations may be needed for certain
individuals, particularly when animals are newly introduced and not
yet fully integrated into their new social group.
- Care is required in design of feeding stations, number of feeding
stations and times of feeding to ensure that all animals have access to
the food, and also to minimise accessibility of food to pests.
- Persuading animals to eat a food which is new to them may be difficult. As
a rule, species with highly specialized diets are more difficult to encourage onto other
foods than are more generalist species, although many species show some degree of
reluctance to eat novel foods or food presented in a novel way. Gradual transition to a
new diet may be required particularly for adult animals. In social species, acceptance by one individual may be the key to
acceptance of the new food by the rest of the group.
- Note: acceptance by a key, usually dominant, individual is
important in some species (e.g. in primates).
- At all times, consideration should be made in providing food to making
the presentation of the food compatible with the normal feeding behaviour of the species
being fed.
- The method of food presentation should also be chosen to provide
environmental enrichment.
- Food should be presented in an appropriate location for the species;
for example, providing food on the ground should be avoided for species
which are primarily arboreal.
- Food for species which mainly feed at night should be provided in the
evening, not placed in the enclosure early in the day. (B469.3.w3)
- It is important to remember that when a variety of foods are made
available, rather than a monotonous but balanced complete food, the animals will not necessarily choose "a balanced
diet". Care must be taken to minimise the risk that food eaten by
each individual will be nutritionally inadequate.
- Group-fed animals are usually fed more than required, to ensure
that sufficient food is available to subordinate individuals.
Therefore not all food will be eaten. (B429.10.w10)
- When animals are group fed, dominant individuals may choose
preferred items and subordinate individuals may have to take what is
left. Both dominant and subordinate individuals may thereby eat an
unbalanced diet. (B429.10.w10)
- While carcass feeding can be beneficial to promote a range of natural
food processing behaviours, there are a number of health considerations
limiting the use of carcasses: (D315.2.w2)
- Animals which have died of illness or of an unknown cause must not
be fed to other animals. (D315.2.w2)
- Animals which are known or suspected to have Johne's disease
should not be fed to other animals. (D315.2.w2)
- Animals with signs of a CNS disorder must not be
fed to other animals, due to the
risk of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. (D315.2.w2)
- "Downer" animals may be used only if they were
suffering from physical injuries only, and these must be properly
processed. (D315.2.w2)
- Road-kill, if used at all, must be used only if fresh, wholesome
and in good condition, having been checked internally for signs of
illness, and the carcass must be removed from the enclosure when it
begins to spoil, or after 12 hours. (D315.2.w2)
- The use of road-kill is discouraged. (D317)
- Note: Particular care may be required to encourage feeding in
newly-arrived individuals and in individuals of social species which
have been isolated, for example during quarantine.
(B33.1.w1, B105.20.w5,
B429.2.w2, B438.7.w7, B438.24.w24,
B469.3.w3, P1.1968.w2,
P1.1976.w3) For
further information on feeding as a means of environmental enrichment see:
Mammal Behavioural Requirements (Mammal Husbandry and Management)
- Feeding Methods |
Bear Consideration
 
 
|
In the wild, for most bear
species most of the time, food sources are scattered and the bear has to
travel to reach different foods. Additionally, food must be gathered by
digging through soil, tearing open logs, turning over stones, climbing
trees and gathering branches etc. Bears may spend large proportions of the
day foraging and take in food in a number of relatively small meals rather
than one large meal (there are exceptions, such as polar bears feeding on
seals, brown bears feeding on large mammal carcasses or spawning salmon,
etc.). Feeding methods in captivity should take these wild behaviours into
account.
The standard system for feeding bears historically has been to provide food once
daily within the indoor cages. (D247.5.w5)
- Evidence suggests that this method of feeding promotes the
development of stereotypic behaviour. (B446.w4,
B447.w4
D247.5.w5)
- Food presentation methods, and providing variety of food items, can
be used to provide stimulation. (B407.w6)
- Further information on the use of food provision for behavioural
enrichment is provided in
Mammal Behavioural Requirements
- Feeding Methods
Frequency of feeding
- Rather than feeding once a day, more frequent feeding with smaller
amounts of food, by different means of presentation, more closely
matches food availability in the wild. (J23.18.w1)
- In general, bears should be offered food at least three times a day,
with most being offered scattered in the outdoor enclosure (see below:
Feeding sites).
- For species with seasonal variations in natural food intake, the
number of feeds should be increased to increase the amount fed at
the time when food would naturally be most plentiful -
e.g.
Ursus arctos - Brown
bears may be offered six feeds a day in autumn.
(D247.5.w5)
- Fast days per se are inappropriate for bears. (B447.w5,
D247.5.w5)
- Anticipation of food appears to be an important stressor on
captive bears (with stereotypic behaviours increasing prior to
provision of food) and starve days appear to increase this
stress. (B447.w5)
- If
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
are given a large meal of meat,
filling the gut well, such that (from previous experience with the
individual bears) it is known little food will be accepted in the day or days
following, it may be appropriate not to feed until two or three
days later. (D247.5.w5)
- Feeding four times a day, including a main feed early in the day
and at least two scatter feeds is recommended to increase foraging
behaviour. (B447.w5)
- If
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
are fed main meals twice daily (early morning and late afternoon),
this should be supplemented by additional feeding opportunities,
irregularly timed and provided at different locations within the
enclosure. (D315.2.w2)
- Note: polar bears in zoos may easily gain excessive
weight; the calorific value of foods used for enrichment should be
calculated and allowed for in the overall diet. (D315.2.w2)
- The
Manitoba
Polar Bear Protection Regulation requires that as well as the
regular feeding schedule, polar bears are provided with "irregularly
timed and located feedings involving foods not normally served."
(LCofC10
- [Full text provided])
Food item preparation
- Food should be provided in forms which require manipulation and
processing of the food items by the bear. (D247.5.w5)
- Whole fruits and vegetables (e.g. apples, pears, melons,
cucumbers) promote food manipulation using the paws, claws, lips
and teeth. (D247.5.w5)
- Food provided inside ice blocks or containers increases foraging
behaviour and gives bears an opportunity to work for their food. (B447.w5)
- Food in small pieces should be given as scatter feeds, so that the
bear has to forage for the food, moving around the enclosure. (D247.5.w5)
- Meat should be provided as whole carcasses of small items (pigeon,
chicken, rabbit, rat) or large portions of larger mammals, including
bone and if possible hide. (D247.5.w5)
- For enclosures with a water moat, a securing device should be
provided to which the carcass can be chained. (D247.5.w5)
- Note: There is a single report of foot infection
associated with a foreign body (piece of turkey bone) presumably
originating from a whole turkey carcass given to a
Ursus maritimus - Polar
bear as part of food-related environmental enrichment.
Continued use of this enrichment after the diagnosis did not
result in any further problems. (J2.32.w4)
- Use of mechanical feeders should be considered only if these have
been carefully designed and tested. (B447.w5)
- Food should not be left near the enclosure, since bears can
smell this food and will expect to be fed. (B447.w5)
- For
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear:
- The
Manitoba
Polar Bear Protection Regulation requires that both hard and
soft foods are provided. (LCofC10
- [Full text provided])
- Soft foods such as ground meat or slab meat should be fed first,
then dry diet, then fish and vegetables, with bones and chew items
such as hide or carcasses fed last, to help remove soft and sticky
foods from the teeth. (D251.4.w4,
D315.2.w2)
- It may be important to feed bones more than once a week to promote
oral health. (D251.4.w4,
D315.2.w2)
- The presentation of food items should be varied to provide
behavioural enrichment; foods used for environmental enrichment should
be handled and stored to the same standards as other foods. (D315.2.w2)
- Whole carcasses may be offered to promote a range of feeding and
foraging behaviours. Care must be taken if road kill is used - it must
be fresh, in good condition, with the carcass opened to allow
inspection and detection of any internal lesions indicating infectious
disease, and must be removed when it begins to spoil, or after 12
hours. (D315.2.w2)
- Note: In the US,
APHIS
standards for marine mammals, including
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
state that: "Food receptacles, if used, must be located so as to be accessible to all marine mammals in the same primary enclosure and must be placed so as to minimize contamination of the food they contain. Such food receptacles must be cleaned and sanitized after each use."
For individual animal feeding, the standards state: "Food, when given to each marine mammal individually, must be given by an employee or attendant responsible to management who has the necessary knowledge to assure that each marine mammal receives an adequate quantity of food to maintain it in good health. Such employee or attendant is required to have the ability to recognize deviations from a normal state of good health in each marine mammal so that the food intake can be adjusted accordingly."
(LCofC9)
Feeding sites
- Food should be provided scattered around the enclosure, not all in
one location. (D247.5.w5)
- Food items can be hidden e.g. in hollow logs, holes in rotten logs,
large stick piles, under leaf litter or buried in the ground; items can be placed
around the enclosure and in hiding places while bears are shut in
dens. (B407.w6,
N19.13.w1)
- Most food may be offered on the ground. (D247.5.w5)
- For bears which swim (Ursus maritimus - Polar bear,
Ursus arctos - Brown bear,
Ursus americanus - American black bear,
Ursus thibetanus - Asiatic black bear,
Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear,
some food items such as nuts and apples can be scattered in the water
on occasion. (D247.5.w5)
- For species which normally feed in trees (Helarctos malayanus - Sun bear,
Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear,
Ursus thibetanus - Asiatic black bear,
Ursus americanus - American black bear,
some food should be offered off the ground, at a height such that the
bear has to climb or stand on its hind legs to reach the food.
- Note: elderly animals which have been fed on the ground
all their lives, should not be fed at high levels. (D247.5.w5)
- Food may be offered in indoor areas to encourage bears to come
inside to allow the outdoor enclosure to be cleaned, or for the night.
This can be used to offer food in bulk. Food offered to encourage
bears in should include delicacies. (D247.5.w5)
- For
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear,
separation into separate enclosures during feeding is suggested, to
reduce fighting and to allow food consumption of individual bears to
be measured accurately. (D315.2.w2)
- Further information on the use of food provision for behavioural
enrichment is provided in
Mammal Behavioural Requirements
- Feeding Methods
Hand feeding by keepers
- Keepers may hand-feed bears with tit-bits as part of a process of
building up trust and mutual respect. (B407.w5,
D315.2.w2)
- Hand feeding also provides a way to give oral medication. (D315.2.w2)
- Note: for safety, hand feeding should be
carried out by the use of "meat sticks", as strongly
suggested by the AZA
Bear
Tag, (D315.2.w2);
alternatively, it should be carried out by the bear sticking its tongue out through the barrier,
not by the keeper putting a hand inside; care is needed to ensure the
keeper's hands do not enter the bear's space. (B407.w5,
D315.2.w2)
- It is important to remember that bears are powerful and could easily
injure or kill a human. In particular, it is important to remember
this when dealing with juvenile or adult bears who were hand-reared
and appear tame. (D315.2.w2)
Food presentation during rehabilitation
- Feeding of bears in
rehabilitation accommodation should be done
in a manner such that the bears do not associate humans as the source
of food. Food items should be scattered around the enclosure following
cleaning, with a lag period of time before the bears are allowed back
into the enclosure. The items should be distributed in a manner to
encourage normal foraging behaviour and not be associated with a
routine vessel such as a food bowl. Enrichment devices should also be
employed as a means of food delivery. Observation of bear feeding
behaviours should be accomplished remotely (i.e. via video monitoring
or from a blind) so the bears do not become accustomed to being
observed by humans. (V.w93)
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Lagomorph Consideration
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Domestic rabbit
- Rabbits generally feed mainly at night and in the early morning. (B614.14.w14)
- Consider feeding the rabbit most of its food in the evening
rather than the morning; wild rabbits feed at mainly dusk and dawn,
rather than during the day (B620),
and experimentally, feeding in the afternoon rather than the
morning reduced abnormal behaviour of caged laboratory rabbits. (J83.33.w3)
- Rabbits are fastidious eaters; odour, texture, form and presentation
method may all affect whether a rabbit finds a food acceptable. (B604.2.w2)
- Rabbits will decrease food consumption at temperatures above about
20 °C. (B614.14.w14)
- Note: Treats should preferably be made of hay, or be of herbs or e.g.
broccoli, with high-concentrate treats (including fruit and carrots)
given only sparingly. (B622.4.w4)
Grazing
- Ideally, domestic rabbits should be given several hours each day
when they can graze. (B600.2.w2)
- Take care to introduce access to grass gradually, particularly
in spring when the grass can be very lush. (N12.38.w2)
- If grazing is limited or unavailable, fresh grass can be picked
daily and given to the rabbit. (B600.2.w2)
- Grass should be hand-picked, not lawn mower clippings. Mower
clippings rapidly ferment, so are not suitable. (B600.2.w2)
- Note: there is a small risk that rabbits fed grass will ingest
parasites from wild rabbits, dogs or foxes. (B600.2.w2)
- Rabbits given access to a garden will eat a variety of plants,
showing individual preferences, and eating not only new shoots but
also older, fibrous vegetation, tree leaves (particularly fallen
leaves in autumn), bark from branches and the bases of trees, and
exposed roots (they may chew through these). Plants which they will
eat include dandelions, brambles and raspberry leaves, young docks,
chickweed, sow thistle, groundsel, clover, plantain, goose grass,
vetches, ground elder etc. (They will also eat herbs, annual bedding
plants and ornamental shrubs if they can access them). (B600.2.w2)
Feeding hay
- As an alternative to grass, or to supplement available grass, hay can be
offered. (B600.2.w2,
J60.9.w1)
- Good quality, fresh, dust-free hay suitable for horses should also
be suitable for rabbits. (B600.2.w2)
- Hay is eaten more slowly than are concentrate foods, which keeps the
rabbit occupied, avoiding boredom. (J60.9.w1,
N36.Jan05.w1)
- Note: given free access to hay and to concentrate foods,
rabbits will eat a significant portion of their diet as hay. (J60.9.w1)
- Hay can be fed on the ground or in hayracks. (B600.2.w2)
- Feeding from racks or hay nets reduces contamination of the hay
and increases the time the rabbit spends feeding. (B601.1.w1)
- However, feeding in overhead hayracks increases the risk of dust and hay fragments
getting into the eyes of rabbits. (B600.2.w2)
Feeding green foods
- The stalks of sprouts can be given to rabbits to gnaw - they can be cut into four pieces first. (B621.II.w2)
- Offering different types of food may provide taste enrichment. (J232.46.w1)
- Give access to the garden for rabbits to chose their own wild
plants to eat. Rabbits given access to a garden will eat a variety of plants,
showing individual preferences, and eating not only new shoots but
also older, fibrous vegetation, tree leaves (particularly fallen
leaves in autumn), bark from branches and the bases of trees, and
exposed roots (they may chew through these). (B600.2.w2)
- Offer branches of apple, willow or hazel. (B624)
Feeding concentrates
- Concentrate foods should be fed in small amounts, once or twice a
day; this encourages feeding on hay etc. the rest of the time.
Constant access to high-energy concentrate foods increases the risk of
obesity. (B554.22.w22,
B604.2.w2)
- Concentrate foods can be given inside a puzzle-feeder such as a ball
with holes in, so that the food pieces drop out as the ball is moved.
(N34.Autumn07.w2)
- Concentrate foods can be hidden for the rabbit to find. (B620,
N34.Autumn07.w2)
Changing diets
- When changing diets, do so gradually over four to five days
or more (mixing
the old and new diets) to allow the rabbit's gastrointestinal system and associated
microflora to adjust to the new diet. (B601.1.w1,
B604.2.w2)
- Note: Rabbits may get accustomed to a particular diet and be reluctant to
change to a different diet. New diets should be introduced gradually.
(B600.2.w2)
Water
- Water should always be available. (B554.22.w22)
- Water bottle nozzles should preferably be stainless steel rather
than softer aluminium, to better withstand chewing. (B554.22.w22)
- Preferably have two bottles so the fresh bottle can be provided
while the first bottle is being cleaned or, in winter, unfrozen. (B554.22.w22,
N34.Winter07.w2)
Wild lagomorphs
- At Basle Zoo, hares were given hay in racks attached to the doors of
the enclosures. The racks had a sloping roof to ensure the hare would
slide off, not get their legs caught. (B525.11.w11)
- For wild lagomorphs undergoing rehabilitation see also:
Feeding of Casualty Rabbits and Hares
- Note: water should be provided ad libitum in a bowl or
similar: do not assume that wild lagomorphs will use a drinking bottle
as some may not. (B64.22.w8,
V.w5,
V.w134)
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Ferret Consideration
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Ferrets are designed to eat little and often. Food and water should always be
available. (B339.9.w9,
J213.2.w5)
- While it is possible to feed a ferret only twice daily, they would
normally take a number of small feeds per day (e.g. nine or 10). (and
more frequent "little and often" feeding is better. (B232.3.w3,
B652.5.w5)
- Ferrets can be fed to appetite (so that a small amount of food is
left over). (B651.5.w5)
- Generally, unless fed large amounts of high-fat treats, ferrets will
not become pathologically obese if provided with ad libitum
food. (J213.2.w5)
- Small prey items such as mice or chicks can be fed whole. Larger
carcasses such as rabbits can either be divided into portions or
minced (including the bones, skin and fur). (B652.5.w5)
- Food preferences as indicated by ferrets offered various items
indicate a liking for chicken, preference for animal fats rather than
vegetable fats, and a dislike for fish. (J213.2.w5)
- Diets designed for mink are often high in fish and, although
nutritionally adequate for ferrets, will therefore be refused if
offered alongside other foods. (J213.2.w5)
- Fish does make up part of the diet of wild
Mustela putorius - Polecat.
(B652.5.w5)
- Note: Ferrets may reject, and refuse to eat, foods which they consider
unpalatable, such as those with a strong fish flavour, even if they
are nutritionally adequate. (J213.2.w5)
- Ferrets can develop a preference for just one or a small number of foods
(flavour/texture). Once this has occurred, it is very difficult to
persuade it to eat other foods. (J213.2.w5)
- The preference is fixed by the time the ferret is just four
months old. (B602.1.w1)
- While ferrets may enthusiastically eat a wide range of snacks, if given free access to
these they may choose an unbalanced diet leading
to gross malnourishment. Snacks which are not in themselves balanced
foods should be given in very small quantities, to avoid unbalancing
the diet. (J213.2.w5)
- Increase interest of pelleted diets by scatter feeding, or hiding
the food (e.g. in boxes, drainpipes, or in a ball with large holes) so
that ferrets have to search and/or work to obtain it. (B631.17.w17)
- When changing diets, including from one brand of kibble diet
to another, make the change gradually and check that the ferret is
accepting the new food. (D400)
Hoarding food
- It is normal for ferrets to hide food, and then to make use of this
food later. (J213.2.w5)
- Note: Hoarded food needs to be found and removed
frequently, particularly in summer, before maggots start
developing in it. (B652.5.w5)
- This is particularly a problem if raw meat is fed during summer.
(D400)
Water
- Water should be provided in a bottle and/or a bowl. Bottles produce
less mess: ferrets tend to play with water bowls. (B339.9.w9)
- If a bowl is used it should be heavy, or securely attached to the
cage, to prevent it being tipped up. (B339.9.w9)
- A clean cat litter tray weighted down e.g. by a brick can be used. (D400)
- Bottles should be thoroughly cleaned and refilled every day. (B339.9.w9)
- Bowls or trays of water should be checked regularly. They should be
topped up if the water level is getting low, and the water should be
changed if it is getting dirty (discoloured, foreign matter floating
in it). (D401
- full text included)
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Bonobo Consideration
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Wild bonobos show several periods of feeding at fruit patches during the
day, interspersed with periods of travelling, although some foods are also
eaten while travelling. Food sharing other than mother to offspring has
been observed associated with large fruits as well as with meat.
See:
In zoos, bonobos are generally fed several times during the day. (D386.3.3.w3c)
Feeding times are generally fixed and may include when bonobos are placed
in night cages and when they are let out into daytime accommodation in the
morning, as well as one or more further feeding times during the day.
Bonobos tend to exhibit socio-sexual behaviours including G/G rubbing,
copulation, penile erection and mounting during feeding times. (D386.3.4.w3d)
Food should be provided in several places to ensure that subordinate
males are not prevented from feeding. (D386.3.3.w3c)
- At some zoos, it has been necessary to separate some individuals for
feeding, to ensure they get enough food, or get their share of
favoured items. (D386.3.3.w3c)
Increased time spent in feeding can be encouraged by:
- Providing browse.
- Scattering food for the bonobos so that they have to forage through
the substrate (grass, hay, straw, woodwool, leaves).
- Providing food (e.g. honey, small nuts, seeds, peanut butter) in
holes in logs or wooden blocks , to be retrieved using sticks as tools
- Giving fruits or vegetables whole.
- Hiding food in boxes or tree trunks.
- Placing small items of food into a container (e.g. a bottle) stuffed
with woodwool to stop it falling out.
- Placing food items into cervices e.g. in tree trunks
- Hiding food inside jute bags tied with rope.
- Placing food on a mesh roof of an enclosure.
- Placing food (peanuts) inside a boomer ball with only one or two
hols for the nuts to fall out, then placing this on the mesh roof.
(D386.3.4.w3d)
Bonobos will also make use of naturally available foods, for example in the group of bonobos at Wild Animal Park
Plankendael, Belgium, the
bonobos have been observed wading into the moat to collect
naturally-growing vegetation, as well as to retrieve food thrown by
visitors (such food throwing is discouraged, but happens). (P86.5.w1)
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Associated techniques linked from Wildpro
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- Foods commonly deteriorate during storage; the rate of deterioration
varies depending on the type of food, and on storage conditions such as
temperature and humidity.
- Foodstuffs should be stored at the correct temperature and humidity conditions for the different foods.
- Large plastic bins or galvanized feedbins may be
used for storing food such as grain and pellets. Bins should be kept closed to exclude
vermin, and spilt food swept up and removed to avoid encouraging
vermin.
- Feed in sacks should be stored in a cool dry place. Sacks should be stacked on pallets rather
than placed directly onto an earth or concrete floor. For longer storage, pellets may be
kept refrigerated or frozen.
- Manufactured feeds have a "use by" or "expiry" date,
after which their stated composition (particularly vitamin levels) may not be
considered valid.
- Foods should be used in rotation, avoiding new foods being used before
older batches. If feed is removed from feed bins by being scooped from the top of the
bin, it is advisable to completely empty the bin before adding a new batch of food, to
avoid old food remaining at the bottom of the bin. This is good practice with any
feedstuff, whether or not it has an official expiry date. If feed is stored in a sack
within a bin, spilt food should be removed from the bottom of the bin every time a sack is
finished.
- Periodic emptying of food storage containers also reduces the risk of food becoming mouldy. Mouldy
food may lead to Aspergillosis,
or may contain mycotoxins (fungal toxins). Mouldy food should
be cleared from food bins and never used for feeding. Food should not be left to go mouldy
in enclosures, and if mouldy food is found in an enclosure it should be removed at once.
Food is most likely to become mouldy if it has a high moisture content and/or is kept in
moist conditions, particularly in a warm environment.
- Care should be taken to minimise consumption of food by pests such as
wild birds and rodents, both during storage and after food has been
offered to animals.
- Most foodstuffs should be stored in a cool, clean, dry (low humidity) place
away from vermin such as rodents and insects.
- Rodent droppings in feed have been
associated with outbreaks of enteritis.
- Hays should be visually checked to ensure they do not contain known
toxic plants.
(B10.3.w18, B23.17.w3, B438.24.w24,
B429.2.w2,
B469.3.w3, V.w5)
Handling and storage of fish, meat and whole prey
- Meat is more likely to decompose quickly than is food of vegetable
origin, therefore more care is required in feeding meat diets. (B469.3.w3)
- Only high-quality fish, meat or whole prey should be bought, in
sizes appropriate for feeding whole. The origin of the catch should be
obtained. (D260,
D261)
- Use of only one type of fish, meat or prey item for a prolonged
period should be avoided, as animals may then refuse to accept
substitutes; the diet also is less likely to be nutritionally balanced
if only a single item is fed. (D260,
D261)
- Preferably, fish/meat should be obtained packaged in quantities
sufficient for feeding in one day; if less than a pack per day is used
then individually quick frozen (IQF) fish/meat or a shatter pack
should be used. (D260,
D261)
- Every consignment should be checked to ensure that:
- The correct fish, meat or prey items (size, type, quantity etc.)
have been delivered; (D260,
D261)
- The food has not been transported together with non-food items
which could contaminate it; (D260,
D261)
- The temperature of transport has been correct (indicated by the
temperature gauge in the storage compartment, confirmed by
checking the temperature inside several containers of the food; (D260,
D261)
- The fish/meat/prey items have not been thawed and refrozen: this
is evident as water or ice on the boxes of food or the floor
beneath them, moist, slippery or discoloured wrappings, soft, flabby
fish, an "off" colour to fish, a sour smell to fish,
meat that is discoloured or brown, prey items with cloudy dull
eyes and soft flesh when thawed. (D260,
D261)
- Fish once thawed should have "bright red gills, prominent
clear eyes, and firm, elastic flesh." (D260)
In contrast, old or thawed and refrozen fish appear dull, with cloudy,
red-bordered eyes and soft flesh in which fingers easily make
impressions. (D260)
Thawed prey items should have clear, prominent eyes and firm flesh,
meat should be red. (D261)
- Note: items which are not in a satisfactory conditions should
not be accepted. Bad meat or fish is a health hazard and could cause
illness or death of animals or of individuals preparing food; it is
also unpalatable. (D260,
D261)
- Fish, meat and prey items should be stored in a freezer which has
been checked to ensure that it is working correctly. (D260,
D261)
- This should be set to at least as low as -18 °C (0 °F) but for
prolonged (up to one year) storage, -23 °C (-10 °F) or below (as
low as -30 °C (-22 °F) is recommended). (D260,
D261)
- No non-food items should be stored in the same freezer. (D260,
D261)
- Cold air circulation must be adequate; check that cold air ducts
are not blocked. (D260,
D261)
- Temperatures in several locations within the freezer should be
checked and recorded on a regular schedule.
- A high humidity (85 - 90 %) should be maintained in the freezer
to reduce the rate of dehydration of the frozen foods. (D260,
D261)
- When new fish/meat/prey arrives, old stocks should be moved so that
this is used first. (D260,
D261)
- Once moved out of the freezer for thawing, fish/meat must be used
within 24 hours. (D260,
D261)
- Fish/meat should be moved from the freezer to an appropriate place
for defrosting quickly and in a manner which prevents defrosting
during transport; if
defrosting occurs then the defrosted fish/meat should be used immediately.
(D260, D261)
- Fish or meat should be thawed preferably in a refrigerator
maintaining a temperature below 7 °C (45 °F), checked with a
thermometer placed under the fish. Alternative methods are:
- Defrosting under potable running water at 21 °C (70 °F) or
lower, with sufficient water velocity that loose particles are
floated away. This method risks nutrient loss, particularly of
water-soluble nutrients; (D260)
- Defrosting in a microwave; this must be used only if the
fish/meat is to be consumed immediately. (D260)
- Note: defrosting in still water is not recommended due to
the combination of nutrient loss and the risk of increased
bacterial build-up. (D260)
- While meat is being thawed, it should preferably be kept wrapped
or in a container providing insulation so the meat thaws as
uniformly as possible. (D261)
- If a large block of fish or meat is to be thawed, it should be
broken into smaller pieces while still frozen, or outer portions
of the block should be removed as they become thawed. (D260,
D261)
- Thawed fish should be checked for quality and processed if necessary
(e.g. removing spines which may be harmful, cutting large fish into
pieces if required e.g. for training); processing can take place while
the fish is not yet thawed.
- Thawed fish or meat, and fresh meat (i.e. which has never been
frozen) should be stored cool, for as short a time as possible, and
all fish/meat must be eaten within 24 hours of being thawed. (D260,
D261)
- All utensils, surfaces, food containers, cutting boards etc. must be
cleaned and sanitised after each feed, or at least once a day;
kitchens and other food-preparation areas must be cleaned daily and
sanitised at least once a week. (D260,
D261)
- Note: Meat, fish and prey items should be fed cool but not
frozen. Frozen meat/fish is rigid, with reduced palatability and
reduced nutrient availability. (D260,
D261)
- In hot, sunny weather, it is important to ensure that meat/fish is
placed in the animal's enclosure as short a time as possible before it
will be eaten. (D260,
D261)
- Meat/fish should be sampled periodically to check microbial
build-up, nutrient content and, at least once yearly, whether any
heavy metals or other toxins are present. If there is reason to
suspect a problem then testing should be carried out immediately. (D260,
D261)
Waste Disposal
- Leftover food should be removed promptly. (B469.3.w3)
- Provision must be made for disposal of food wastes, rubbish (trash)
and debris in a manner which minimises their attractiveness to vermin
as well as production of odours and disease hazards. (D260,
D261)
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Bear Consideration
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- As with all species, it is important to maintain good hygiene in food
storage and food preparation.
- Bears should not be fed pig meat, due to the risk of their becoming
infected with Trichinella (see:
Trichinella Infection in Hedgehogs and Bears)
and due to the risk of Aujeszky's
disease (see:
Pseudorabies in Bears)
- If feeding fish, particularly salmonids (salmon and trout), consider
the risks of disease transmission; feeding of fresh or improperly frozen
fish may lead to infection with flukes and associated rickettsias (P507.2005.w5).
See: Intestinal Fluke Infection in Bears,
Elokomin Fluke Fever in Bears,
Salmon Poisoning in Bears.
- Care should be taken to check foods are not mouldy. This can be a
particular problem for nuts, which must be checked carefully before
feeding. (W627.Mar06.w1)
- Consider the risks of foods becoming spoilt or mouldy if they are
hidden around the enclosure; it may be necessary to remove or replace
some items given in logs etc. if they are not found and eaten
quickly.
- Browse supplied to bears should be checked carefully to ensure toxic
plants are not included. See:
Oleander Poisoning in Waterfowl and Bears,
Yew Toxicity in Bears
- In the US, APHIS
standards for marine mammals, including
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
state that: "Equipment and utensils used in food preparation must be cleaned and sanitized after each use. Kitchens and other food handling areas where animal food is prepared must be cleaned at least once daily and sanitized at least once every week. Sanitizing must be accomplished by washing with hot water (8
[deg]C, 180 [deg]F, or higher) and soap or detergent in a mechanical dishwasher, or by washing all soiled surfaces with a detergent solution followed by a safe and effective disinfectant, or by cleaning all soiled surfaces with live steam. Substances such as cleansing and sanitizing agents, pesticides, and other potentially toxic agents must be stored in properly labeled containers in secured cabinets designed and located to prevent contamination of food storage preparation surfaces."
(LCofC9)
Waste Disposal
- In the US, APHIS
standards for marine mammals, including
Ursus maritimus - Polar bear
state that: "Provision must be made for the removal and disposal of animal and food wastes, dead animals, trash, and debris. Disposal facilities must be provided and operated in a manner that will minimize odors and the risk of vermin infestation and disease hazards. All waste disposal procedures must comply with all applicable Federal, State, and local laws pertaining to pollution control, protection of the environment, and public health."
(LCofC9)
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Lagomorph Consideration
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If prepared feedstuffs (e.g. commercial rabbit pellets) are used, it is
important to use them within the time for which their declared vitamin
content is valid.
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Sacks of feed preferably should be stored at 15.5 °C (60 °F). (B187.16.w16,
B602.16.w16)
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Keep feed in a vermin-proof area. (B187.16.w16,
B602.16.w16)
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Prepared feeds should be used preferably within 90 days of milling,
and certainly within six months. (B187.16.w16,
B602.16.w16)
- Concentrate foods should be offered in a heavy bowl to prevent
spillage; these can still become contaminated. Use of a food hopper
prevents contamination (B554.22.w22)
When wild green foods are gathered, healthy-looking plants should be
taken, from open, sunny situations.
- Avoid gathering wild plants from areas which may have been sprayed
with pesticides, or which are used by dogs. (D354)
- Avoid plants which are mildewed or have obvious fungal growth
(mouldy).
- Provide a variety of green food.
- Wash collected food before use.
- Store it laid loosely on a clean surface - preferably on wire racks
- until it is fed.
- Do not store collected green food in a heap, as it will heat up (in a similar
manner to grass clippings, which should not be fed).
- If the plants are frosted, they should be allowed to thaw before
being offered, and then used up quickly as they keep less well after
frosting.
(B601.1.w1,
B602.16.w16,
B621.I.w1,
D354)
- Fresh, high-quality hay should be used. (B554.21.w21)
- Dried grass and hay should be stored in a dry, well ventilated area
to avoid mould growing. (B622.4.w4,
B624)
Water
- Water should be changed daily. (B622.4.w4,
N34.Winter07.w3)
- Water bowls easily become contaminated and/or spilled. (B602.16.w16)
- Bowls should be cleaned and refilled at least once a day. (B602.16.w16)
- Water bottles are less likely to become contaminated than are water
bowls; they also allow easy monitoring of the amount being drunk. (B554.22.w22,
B601.1.w1)
- Water bottles or bowls need to be cleaned regularly e.g. to prevent growth of
algae. (B622.4.w4,
B554.22.w22,
V.w134)
- Water bowls may lead to a wet dewlap and resultant moist dermatitis.
(B601.1.w1,
B602.16.w16)
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Ferret Consideration
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Foods should be stored properly. Foods stored for too long may no longer
have adequate vitamin levels. Additionally, components such as fats may go
off, making the food rancid and unpalatable. (V.w5)
- When complete pelleted diets are fed, it is important not to buy to
large a quantity at one time, as these can spoil and lose vitamin
content with time. (B631.17.w17)
- Hygiene is particularly important when fresh carcasses are being
fed. (B631.17.w17)
- Care must be taken to avoid food going off while being defrosted
and prepared.
- Food which is uneaten, including food stashed by the ferret,
must be removed quickly, particularly in summer, before it becomes
rotten and before maggots start growing in it. (B232.3.w3,
B631.17.w17,
B652.5.w5)
- If carcasses are minced, the mincer must be cleaned thoroughly.
(B652.5.w5)
- Feeding of roadkill is sometimes suggested. If this is to take
place, the carcasses must be fresh and must be checked
for signs of illness which may have caused the animal to be more
likely to be run over. (B651.5.w5,
B652.5.w5)
- Note: ferrets are susceptible to botulism. (Avian Botulism in Waterfowl (with notes on Hedgehogs, Elephants, Bears and Ferrets))
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Bonobo Consideration
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- As with all species, food should be stored in a manner which minimises
deterioration, and stored and prepared in a hygienic manner. (V.w5)
- Food scraps should be cleaned up regularly, and soiled food disposed
of correctly, not left for rodents to eat, as this encourages rodents,
which may spread diseases. (D425.1.2.w1b)
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Associated techniques linked from Wildpro
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Bonobos:
