Hedgehogs: Badgers: Elephants: Bears: Rabbits: Ferrets: Bonobos:

(See also Physical Examination of Birds and Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife))

Note: This page describes GENERAL PRINCIPLES of physical examination of mammals. Information has been added specifically for the volumes "Hedgehogs: Health and Management", "Elephants: Diseases and Treatment", "Bears: Health and Management", "Rabbits and their Relatives: Health and Management"  "Ferrets: Health and Management" and "Bonobos: Health and Management" therefore specific information is included on physical examination of hedgehogs, elephants, bears and lagomorphs (rabbits and their relatives). This page has also been linked from other Wildpro volumes. Use the "Back" button on your browser toolbar to return to the last page you visited.

• Physical examination is an integral part of the investigation of a disease problem and should also be a part of routine disease control, e.g. quarantine, annual health checks, animals involved in translocation and reintroduction programs.
• Complete physical examination uses the vision, hearing, smell and touch senses of the examiner. (B280.1.w1)
• In carrying out a physical examination, it is beneficial to be aware of the normal appearance and anatomical features of the species being examined.
• The results of a physical examination of the mammal should be used in conjunction with its clinical history (see: History & Documentation), consideration of its immediate environment whether free-ranging or under captive management, appearance of faeces (droppings), and further tests as appropriate. 
• Remembering the adage that "common things occur commonly" in all species of mammals; knowledge of the clinical conditions commonly seen in the species under question, taking into account whether they are captive or free-ranging, is useful to guide the clinical examination. 
  • However this should not encourage the examiner to forget to perform a full clinical examination in every case, encompassing all systems and areas of the body.
• When examining an individual of an unfamiliar species, every effort should be made to gain information of its anatomy, physiology and common clinical conditions in advance through literature or expert contacts. First principles should then be used, as for examination of all mammals, to gain maximum information from the procedure and to guide further investigations as necessary.
• The physical examination should be performed in a systematic manner, progressing from head to tail or on a body system basis, dependent on the preference of the operator. It is important to develop a methodical approach to avoid omitting examination of any body parts or systems.
  • Bilateral structures should always be compared with one another for asymmetry.
  • It is advisable not to focus on the area or system where the problem is perceived to be from the outset. This reduces the risk of not recognising important problems, and encourages identification of any concurrent problems. 
• Detection of abnormalities should not distract the examiner from completing the full clinical examination unless this may complicate the disease process, cause undue pain, or unacceptably increase the likelihood of risk to the examiner. (B280.1.w1)
• Leaving examination of the perceived area or system of concern until the end of the examination may be preferable.
  • This is particularly important for clinical examination of conscious patients where the problem area or system may be painful or uncomfortable to check, as patient tolerance of further examination may be reduced after checking any painful areas.
• For casualty animals, except when a life-threatening condition is present (e.g. haemorrhage, obstruction of breathing), a full physical examination should not be undertaken until the animal has had a chance to rest quietly and its condition stabilise after transport. (B118.18.w18)
• The results of the clinical examination should be used to prepare the diagnostic plan for the mammal. The acronym 'SOAP' can be used as a guideline for the examination.
  • S = SUBJECTIVE assessment. Comment on the demeanour of the animal (bright, alert responsive; quiet, alert, responsive; collapsed; comatose). Note any subjective changes since the last examination.
  • O = OBJECTIVE assessment. Make notes of the findings of the clinical examination in a standard format.
  • A = ASSESSMENT. Comment on conclusions drawn from the subjective and objective examinations, detailing the clinical problems in order of priority.
  • P = PLAN. Formulate a diagnostic and treatment plan for case management.
  • Review as above on a regular basis.

(B118.18.w18, B280.1.w1, B433, V.w26)

• Physical examination of a casualty or orphan hedgehog should be performed shortly after its arrival at a wildlife hospital or veterinary practice.
  • Except when a life-threatening condition is present (e.g. haemorrhage, obstruction of breathing) a full physical examination should not be undertaken until the casualty hedgehog has had a chance to rest quietly and its condition stabilise after transport. (B118.18.w18)
• Physical examination of the hedgehog may also be performed as part of a pre-release assessment process, in research or translocation studies.
• Physical examination of the hedgehog, as for all wild animal casualties, is particularly important since the history of the animal is usually limited.
• Knowledge of the natural history, particularly the anatomy and physiology of the hedgehog, is recommended. 
  • (See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology (Literature Reports))
  • (See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus- Appearance- Morphology (Literature Reports))
• Understanding of the diseases affecting the hedgehog, how commonly they occur, whether they typically affect single or groups of animals, and what age of hedgehog they affect, is particularly useful.
  • (See: Diseases reported to affect the West European hedgehog - SEARCH & List)
  • Knowledge of the common conditions affecting hedgehogs can be useful to guide the examiner to potentially important areas of the physical examination. However it is essential that a complete examination is performed in every case.
• A thorough examination soon after the hedgehog has been brought into care allows an early decision to euthanase those with severe injuries for which this is the most humane option, such as individuals with:
  • More than one limb amputated or requiring amputation; (B337.3.w3)
  • Loss of the nose (and therefore the ability to find food); (B337.3.w3)
  • Severe damage to the nose, with maxillopalatine fractures which cannot be stabilised. (B284.6.w6)
  • Severe evisceration, with the intestines or other internal organs pulled out of the abdomen.(B337.3.w3)
  • Severe maggot infestation involving deep, not just surface, tissues. (V.w5)

(B118.18.w18, B284.6.w6, B337.3.w3, V.w5, V.w26)

• A thorough history should always be taken before proceeding to the physical exam.
  • See: History & Documentation 
• Before starting a physical examination, always ask the keeper about the elephant’s temperament.
• A bull in musth should never be approached by a stranger. To determine if the bull is in musth, the perineum should be observed for obvious swelling, and the temporal gland openings for swelling and/or discharges. (B455.w1)
• It has been recommended that the examiner verbally communicate to the elephant before actually touching him, however some elephant keepers in the U.S. prefer that the examiner do not speak directly to the elephant. (B455.w1)
• The physical examination should be performed in a consistent manner that will include all the body systems. (B455.w1)
• When examining an elephant, a basic understanding of the natural history, particularly the anatomy and physiology of elephants, is essential. Information on elephant natural history is provided in:

  Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant

  • See: Asian Elephant Elephas maximus - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
  • See: Asian Elephant Elephas maximus - Appearance- Morphology- Skin-Coat-Pelage (Literature Reports)
  • See: Asian Elephant Elephas maximus - Detailed Anatomy Notes (Literature Reports)
  • See: Asian Elephant Elephas maximus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports))

  Loxodonta africana - African Elephant

  • See: African Elephant Loxodonta africana - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
  • See: African Elephant Loxodonta africana - Appearance- Morphology- Skin-Coat-Pelage (Literature Reports)
  • See: African Elephant Loxodonta africana - Detailed Anatomy Notes (Literature Reports)
  • See: African Elephant Loxodonta africana - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports)

  Loxodonta cyclotis - Forest Elephant

  • See: Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
  • See: Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis - Appearance- Morphology- Skin-Coat-Pelage (Literature Reports)
  • See: Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis - Detailed Anatomy Notes (Literature Reports)
  • See: Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports)
• The examiner should be familiar with the vitals and signs of health and disease in elephants.
• If the tuberculosis (TB) status is unknown or TB or other potentially zoonotic diseases are suspected, the examiner should consider wearing protective clothing and using protective equipment, including gloves and a hepa-filter mask. (B455.w1)
• It has been recommended to first observe the elephant from a distance and from multiple directions, then conduct a close examination starting at the left side of the head and proceed along the left side of the body to the rear of the elephant and then to the right side, ending at the head. All body areas are observed or palpated. (B455.w1)
• Understanding of the diseases affecting the elephant, the occurrence and reasons for presentation, whether they typically affect single or groups of animals, and what age of elephant they affect, is particularly useful.
  • (See: Diseases reported to affect elephants - SEARCH & List)
  • Knowledge of the common conditions affecting elephants can be useful to guide the examiner to focus on important areas of the physical examination. However it is essential that a complete examination is performed in every case.

• A thorough history should always be taken before proceeding to the physical exam.
  • See: History & Documentation 
• Physical examination of a bear should follow the same routine as for physical examination of other mammals such as dogs or cats.

• A thorough history should always be taken before proceeding to the physical exam.
  • Signs may be described by the owner but not be present when the rabbit is being examined, for example:
    • Tooth grinding. (B600.3.w3)
    • Changes in general demeanour. (B600.3.w3)
    • Head-nodding while relaxed. (B600.3.w3)
    • Lack of apparent awareness of loud noises. (B600.3.w3)
  • See: History & Documentation 
• Physical examination of a lagomorph should follow the same routine as for physical examination of other mammals such as dogs or cats. As with other species, a systematic approach is important to ensure the whole patient is assessed, such as starting at the nose and working towards the tail. (B602.14.w14, J213.2.w2)
• A thorough examination is essential since rabbits rarely show overt signs of illness. (B601.2.w2)

Critically ill rabbits

• When dealing with a critically ill rabbit, it is particularly important to observe the rabbit before it is taken from its carrying box, and to auscultate the thorax, palpate the pulse (femoral) and get a heart rate and temperature first. Always palpate the stomach. Examine the teeth last. (J213.1.w1)

Groups of lagomorphs

• In a large group, it may only be possible to examine closely a percentage of the individual animals. (B601.2.w2)
• History taking will be extremely important. (B601.2.w2) See: History & Documentation

• In an emergency, stabilise the ferret first. (B631.18.w18)
• Generally, the physical examination of the ferret is similar to that of other small mammals. As with other species, a systematic approach (set order of examination) and a thorough examination are recommended. (B602.2.w2, J29.19.w1, J213.2.w6)

Note: If any member of staff has a severe respiratory tract infection they should avoid treating or being in contact with any ferret, because ferrets are very susceptible to human influenza (see Influenza in Ferrets ), particularly if they are already weak. If a person with severe respiratory disease must handle a ferret, they should wear a mask and gloves. (B631.18.w18)

• In Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee, both visual assessment and systematic palpation is recommended. (D409.6.w6)
• Full physical examination of primates such as chimpanzees requires a general anaesthetic. Everything required for the examination, including all equipment that may be needed for sampling etc. should be prepared before the animal is anaesthetised, to ensure that the anaesthetic lasts for as short a time as possible.
• Health checks can be carried out for example when a primate is being moved, as well as during quarantine. (D425.3.5.w3e)

• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Chapter 5 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Euthanasia
• Elephants and their Diseases- A Treatise on Elephants - Part IV - Chapter II - General Indications of Ill Health

Much information may be gained by examining the immediate surroundings of the mammal(s) See also: Environmental Assessment

• The ability to examine the immediate surroundings of the mammal will vary greatly according to whether the individual is free-ranging (wildlife casualty, translocation or field study) or captive (zoological garden, private collection, companion animal).
• Wild mammal casualties are frequently presented at a wildlife hospital or veterinary surgery. In this instance the examiner must take as full a history as possible from the finder, including description of the local environment where the mammal was found. 
  • In these cases it is vital to record the exact location where the casualty was found, including local recognition points and grid reference numbers if available, along with the contact details of the finders.
    • Enables the examiner to visit the local habitat if necessary, particularly if investigating a problem affecting multiple individuals.
    • Ensures that the mammal can be released back into its familiar home range or territory after treatment, aiming to maximise its chances of survival.
• Where examination of the local habitat and immediate surroundings is possible for free-ranging mammals, note:
  • Evidence of piles of urine and faeces around the rear of the animal which may indicate prolonged recumbency.
  • Evidence of disturbed vegetation around the animal which may suggest that the animal has suffered from convulsions.
  • Recent application of agrochemicals and likelihood of persecution (poisons, traps, snares).
  • Local land use, proximity to roads, environmental disruption (e.g. construction / demolition work).
  • Climate and recent weather (rainfall, temperature, lightning, wind chill).
• For group problems in particular, examination of the cage, enclosure or local environment where the problem is occurring may be vital.
• For examination of wild mammals in a captive environment, observation of the enclosure should note:
  • Physical factors including the temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, drainage and condensation within the enclosure and their suitability for the species.
    • A strong smell of ammonia within the enclosure may indicate substrate contaminated with urine and faeces in need of cleaning, also inadequate ventilation.
    • The irritant nature of ammonia may increase the likelihood of respiratory disease.
  • Appearance, volume and distribution (latrines and territory marking) of urine and faeces. 
  • Presence of vomit or regurgitated food material.
  • Methods of food and water provision; height and number of sites in relation to the size of the group, suitability of containers and methods of provision for the species, risk of water supply freezing, presence of food caches, etc.
  • The volume and type of foodstuffs within the diet; whether all foods are taken with similar preference (preferential selection of some foodstuffs may lead to nutritional disorders, selection of soft foodstuffs alone may indicate a dental or oral problem interfering with chewing); suitability of the diet for the species (nutritional diet analyses may be required. See: Website Ref - W7 - ZOOTRITION - Dietary Management Software for zoo and wildlife professionals).
  • Plant species present within the enclosure, particularly potentially toxic species.
  • Enclosure boundary construction and potential physical dangers present e.g. sharp wire, toxic wood preservatives, fencing in which limbs could become caught.
  • Relate the size of the enclosure to the number of individuals present; assess potential overcrowding.
  • Assess the areas of refuge and shelter present within the enclosure so that subordinate animals can escape from dominant individuals, reducing stress levels and risks of physical aggression and trauma.
  • Access by wild birds and mammals and the risks of disease introduction which this poses.
    • e.g. Toxoplasmosis, Salmonellosis, yersiniosis, encephalomyocarditis virus.
• Where practical for caged individuals (i.e. cage-size permitting), if a mammal is brought to a veterinarian for examination the cage should be brought as well, complete with the paper or other cage floor covering, and the urine and faeces produced by the mammal.
• If the normal cage cannot be brought, or the enclosure/environment visited, details of these should form part of the history, and the carer/owner urged to bring a sample of typical droppings.
• Droppings should be examined visually, noting their quantity, colour and consistency. 
  • If blood is present, an assessment of the amount of blood should be made, allowing for the ability of a small volume of blood to cover a large area, and an assessment as to whether it is fresh or dark in appearance. 
  • If in doubt, faecal occult (hidden) blood tests may be of use.
  • The presence of undigested or foreign material within the faeces should be noted. 
  • Volumes and appearance of diarrhoea may suggest small or large intestinal problems e.g. presence of mucus or blood, consistency, volume, steatorrheoa.

(V.w26)

• Hedgehogs presented for physical examination are most commonly free-ranging animals which have been found and identified as casualties or orphans in need of care. The diseases and conditions affecting them are those which have developed, on the whole, prior to captivity.
  • Observation of the immediate surroundings for free-ranging hedgehog casualties by the examiner may not be possible.
  • Hedgehog casualties are frequently presented by members of the public at a wildlife hospital or veterinary surgery. In this instance the examiner must take as full a history as possible from the finder, including description of the local environment where the mammal was found. 
    • In these cases it is vital to record the exact location where the casualty was found, including local recognition points and if possible grid reference numbers, along with the contact details of the finders.
    • Enables the examiner to visit the local habitat if necessary, particularly if investigating a problem affecting multiple individuals. (See: Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife))
    • Ensures that the hedgehog can be released back into its familiar home range or territory after treatment, aiming to maximise its chances of survival. (See: Release of Casualty Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog)
  • Additional information which may be obtained from the finder includes the time of day when the hedgehog was found - healthy hedgehogs are not usually out in the daytime.
    • Hedgehogs found out in the daytime and lying down, making no effort to hide, are likely to be in need of care. (B337.3.w3)
    • Hedgehogs which may be out in daytime but are healthy include blind individuals, autumn juveniles trying to reach hibernation weight, females collecting extra nesting material just before giving birth, and individuals which have been disturbed, e.g. by gardening activity. These individuals are likely to be active when seen. (B337.3.w3)
• Details of the local surroundings, habitat and circumstances in which the hedgehog was found, including the time of day at which it was found, can be very useful in suggesting potential problems present (e.g. found near road, close to bonfire, recent application of pesticides, out during the day in autumn, following nest disturbance).
• Evaluation of the immediate surroundings should be possible when hedgehogs are in captivity (i.e. under treatment and rehabilitation or long term care sheltered accommodation).
• In captivity, casualty hedgehogs which are active overnight will typically disturb their bedding and food, produce faeces around the enclosure and create quite a 'mess'. If the cage appears relatively undisturbed in the morning, this is an indication that the hedgehog has not been active through the night and should prompt the examiner to assess the individual further.(V.w44)
• Observation of the urine and faeces is particularly important for hedgehog casualties.
  • Normal faeces of adults are firm and brown-black in colour, appearing sticky when picked up using a spatula. (B291.12.w12)
  • Normal faeces of juveniles are softer and greyish green. (B291.12.w12)
  • Normal faeces just before, and sometimes just after, hibernation may be dark green. (B337.3.w3, V.w56)
  • Diarrhoea or changes in faeces may be seen associated with a number of parasitic and bacterial infections including:
    • (Thorny-headed Worm) Acanthocephala Infection of Hedgehogs
    • Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs
    • Hedgehog Intestinal Nematode Infection
    • Hedgehog Intestinal Fluke Infection
    • Hedgehog Tapeworm Infection
    • Hedgehog Nematode (Oesophagus & Stomach) Infection
    • Colibacillosis
    • Proteus Infection
    • Salmonellosis
  • Jelly-like green mucoid faeces are characteristically seen with parasitic infections such as Hedgehog Intestinal Nematode Infection (J15.21.w1) and Hedgehog Intestinal Fluke Infection.(B151)
  • Flecks of fresh blood in the faeces can be seen in hedgehogs suffering from salmonella infection. (See: Salmonellosis)
  • Melaena can be seen in association with Hedgehog Intestinal Fluke Infection.(J15.21.w1, B22.27.w3)
  • Bloody diarrhoea can be seen in association with coccidiosis (Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs), although this infection is usually subclinical.(J15.21.w1, B22.27.w3, B156.7.w7)
  • Urine may be collected from a clean box and examined for pathogens and for the presence of blood. (B291.12.w12)
  • Samples of faeces may be submitted for bacteriological examination and for parasitological examination: macroscopic examination for the presence of single proglottids or chains of proglottids indicating tapeworm infection (See: Hedgehog Tapeworm Infection), microscopic examination for eggs of nematodes or flukes and for coccidia or other protozoa. (B291.12.w12)
    • A quick faecal examination may be made by smearing a very small amount of faeces on a slide with a drop of water, placing a cover slip over the sample, then examining down the microscope. (B337.6.w6)
  • The faeces may smell more than usual in an individual with diarrhoea. (B337.3.w3)
    • The smell of the faeces in an individual with Hedgehog Intestinal Fluke Infection is said to be distinctive. (B337.3.w3)
  • Bacterial diarrhoea in hoglets may be associated with Colibacillosis or Proteus Infection.
  • Bacterial diarrhoea may also occur with Salmonellosis. 
• Details of the substrate (e.g. concrete, mud, grass) and other environmental features in which the hedgehog has been kept or found may be very important in disease diagnosis.

(B22.27.w3, B156.7.w7, B151, B291.12.w12, B337.3.w3, J15.21.w1, V.w26)

• Evaluation of the immediate surroundings should be possible in elephants in captivity. 
• Observation of the faeces is important:
  • Soft faeces or diarrhoea, in some cases haemorrhagic, may be noted in cases of: 

    • Bots in Elephants

    • Clostridium perfringens Infection in Elephants

    • Colic in Elephants

    • Diarrhoea in Elephants

    • Elephant Gastro-Intestinal Nematode Infection

    • Intestinal Fluke Infection in Elephants

    • Liver Fluke Infection in Elephants

    • Rhododendron Toxicity in Elephants

    • Salmonellosis

    • Schistosomiasis in Waterfowl and Elephants

• Constipation may occur as a general sign of illness. (B10.49.w21)

  • Consider Constipation-Impaction in Elephants

• Coarse, poorly digested food particles in the faeces may be found in elephants with tooth problems. (B10.34.w42, B23.79A.w11, P1.1982.w1)

  • Molar Maldevelopment and Malocclusion in Elephants

• Vomit may be occasionally found in problems such as schistosomiasis (see: Schistosomiasis in Waterfowl (with notes on Elephants))

• Decreased urine output may occur as a general sign of illness. (B10.49.w21)

• The volume and type of diet and whether all foods are taken with similar preference should be noted.
• Suitability of the diet for the species (nutritional diet analyses may be required (See: Website Ref - W7 - ZOOTRITION - Dietary Management Software for zoo and wildlife professionals).
• Inadequate dietary management may lead to nutritional disorders such as:
  • Calcium-Vitamin D Metabolism Imbalance (with special reference to Hedgehogs and Elephants)
  • Iron Deficiency Anaemia in Elephants
  • Protein Malnutrition in Elephants
  • Protein Excess in Growing Elephants
  • Scurvy in Elephants
  • Vitamin E - Selenium Deficiency (with special reference to Waterfowl and Elephants)
  • Zinc Deficiency (with special reference to Waterfowl and Elephants)
• Observe for any neurological signs such as ataxia, paralysis etc.
• Neurological signs have been recorded in the following disorders: 

  • Alcohol Poisoning in Hedgehogs (with notes on Elephants)

  • Atropine Toxicity in Elephants

  • Avian Botulism in Waterfowl (with notes on Hedgehogs and Elephants)

  • Capture Myopathy (with special reference to Waterfowl and notes on Elephants)

  • Cardiac Glycoside Toxicity in Elephants

  • Encephalomyocarditis (with special reference to Elephants)

  • Flaccid Trunk Paralysis in African Elephants Loxodonta africana

  • Levamisole-Tetramisole Toxicity with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs and Elephants

  • Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) Toxicity in Elephants

  • Rabies (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs and Elephants)

  • Ryegrass Toxicity in Elephants

  • Salt Poisoning in Waterfowl and Elephants

  • Sunstroke / Heatstroke in Waterfowl and Elephants)

  • Tetanus (with special reference to Elephants)

  • Trunk Paralysis (Non-Specific) in Elephants

  • Tutu (Coriaria arborea) Toxicity in Elephants

  • Varagu (Paspalum serobiculatum) Toxicity in Elephants

  • Vitamin E - Selenium Deficiency (with special reference to Waterfowl and Elephants)

• The surface of the floor should be smooth, but not slippery when wet, impervious to water and able to drain adequately. (B336.53.w53)
  • Rough and unhygienic floors may lead to foot problems, such as:

    • Bacterial Pododermatitis in Elephants

    • Cuticle Overgrowth in Elephants

    • Foot Wounds in Elephants

    • Heel Cracks in Elephants

    • Nail Abscess in Elephants

    • Nail Cracks in Elephants

    • Nail Overgrowth in Elephants

    • Overworn Sole in Elephants

    • Sole Abscess in Elephants

    • Sole Cracks in Elephants

    • Sole Overgrowth in Elephants 

• Plant species present within the enclosure, particularly potentially toxic species and access to any other toxins that may lead to toxic disorder should be noted. See:
  • Alcohol Poisoning in Hedgehogs (with notes on Elephants) (Toxic Disease Summary)
  • Anticholinesterase Toxicity in Waterfowl (with notes on Hedgehogs and Elephants)
  • Aracea sp. Toxicity in Elephants
  • Carbon Monoxide Toxicity in Elephants
  • Cardiac Glycoside Toxicity in Elephants
  • Copper Toxicity in Waterfowl (with notes on Elephants)
  • Hemlock (Conium maculatum) and Thorn apple (Datura stramonium) Toxicity in Elephants
  • Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl (with a note on Elephants)
  • Organophosphate Toxicity in Elephants
  • Rhododendron Toxicity in Elephants
  • Ryegrass Toxicity in Elephants
  • Salt Poisoning in Waterfowl (with a note on elephants)
  • Snake Bite in Elephants
  • Sodium Fluoroacetate Toxicity in Elephants
  • Tutu (Coriaria arborea) Toxicity in Elephants
  • Varagu (Paspalum serobiculatum) Toxicity in Elephants
  • Zinc Phosphide Toxicity in Elephants

• Rotavirus Infection in Bears (particularly in colostrum-deprived neonates)
• Hookworm Infection in Bears
• Baylisascaris Infection in Bears
• Bacterial Gastroenteritis in Bears
• Clostridium difficile Infection in Bears (haemorrhagic faeces)
• Clostridium perfringens Infection in Elephants and Bears
• Elokomin Fluke Fever in Bears
• Infectious Canine Hepatitis (with special reference to Bears)
• Leptospirosis (with notes on Hedgehogs, Elephants and Bears)
• Salmonellosis (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs, Elephants and Bears)
• Salmon Poisoning in Bears
• Pseudorabies in Bears

Lack of faeces may be noted with:

• Constipation in Bears
• Gastritis in Bears

Vomiting has been noted associated with:

• Brucellosis (experimental infection)
• Gastritis in Bears
• Hepatic and Bile Duct Neoplasia in Bears
• Infectious Canine Hepatitis (with special reference to Bears)
• Pseudorabies in Bears
• Oleander Poisoning in Waterfowl and Bears (repeated vomiting)
• Salmon Poisoning in Bears
• Yew Toxicity in Bears (although the bear which died did not vomit)

Urinary problems:

• Haematuria has been noted with Pseudorabies in Bears
• Chronic urinary incontinence was noted in female bears with cystitis (Cystitis in Elephants and Bears)

Faeces

A healthy rabbit ingests its own caecotrophs and produces large quantities of hard faeces. (B600.3.w3)

• Check any faeces present. (J72.48.w1)
  • The owner may be asked to bring a typical sample of faeces.
• Some caecotrophs may remain uneaten by a healthy rabbit. They are softer than normal pellets and strong-smelling, and the owner may think that a cluster of these is diarrhoea. (B600.3.w3)
• Rabbits may fail to eat caecotrophs due to obesity, spinal problems or dental disease. (B600.3.w3)
• It is normal for a rabbit to produce about 150 hard pellets a day. (B600.3.w3)
  • Smaller and fewer hard pellets are produced when food intake is reduced. (B600.3.w3)
  • Lack of production of hard pellets indicates anorexia (no food intake) or reduced gut mobility. (B600.3.w3)
• Soft or liquid faeces, which cannot be identified as either caecotrophs or faecal pellets, are a sign of enteritis. (B600.3.w3)
• Microscopically, hard pellets are composed of undigested strands of fibre, while caecotrophs contain many bacteria and protozoa, with occasional yeasts. (B600.3.w3)
• Diarrhoea may be due to:
  • Bacterial enteritis (Colibacillosis, Salmonellosis, Tyzzer's Disease). (B601.App2.w20)
  • Rotavirus Infection in Rabbits
  • Rabbit Enteric Coronavirus Infection (a rare disease of young rabbits). (B601.App2.w20)
  • Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs and Lagomorphs (usually in young rabbits). (B601.App2.w20)
  • Clostridial Enteritis and Enterotoxicosis in Rabbits. (B601.App2.w20)
  • Gastric Stasis Syndrome in Rabbits (B601.App2.w20)
  • Leporine dysautonomia. (B601.App2.w20)
• Excess caecotrophs on the fur round the anus may be due to:
  • Obesity. (B601.App1.w19)
  • Spinal pain. (B601.App1.w19)
    • Spinal Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Spinal Injury in Lagomorphs
    • Intervertebral Disc Disease in Rabbits
  • Dental pain. (B601.App1.w19)
    • Acquired Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Acquired Molar Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Congenital Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Facial Abscesses in Rabbits
    • Oral Soft Tissue Trauma in Rabbits
    • Periodontal Disease in Rabbits
  • Reduced ingestion of caecotrophs due to overfeeding or reduced palatability (e.g. with high protein diet). (B601.App1.w19)
  • Production of excess caecotrophs due to low-fibre, high protein and carbohydrate diet. (B601.App1.w19)

Urine

• Normal rabbit urine can vary in colour from pale yellow to orange, brown or even deep red. (B600.3.w3)
• Haematuria is seen with urolithiasis and in uterine disorders. (B600.3.w3, J213.2.w2)
  • This must be distinguished from the normal red urine which can be seen in rabbits eating vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage or dandelions. (B600.3.w3, J213.2.w2)
  • Plant pigments give a uniform reddish or brownish colour to the urine, while red or black clots are signs of blood. (J523.6.w1)
  • Use a dipstick to confirm the presence or absence of blood. (B600.3.w3, J213.2.w2)
  • Or examine the urine with a Wood's lamp: the pigments will fluoresce under UV light, blood will not. (B600.3.w3)
    • Fluorescence also occurs with pigment associated with Porphyria in Rabbits
  • Or leave the urine to stand - red blood cells will settle out, pigment will not. (J213.2.w2)
  • Hyperpigmented urine has been seen due to urobilinuria, without any associated disease. (J495.37.w1)
  • If haematuria is present, consider whether the following conditions are present: (B601.App2.w20, J495.37.w1)
    • Cystitis in Elephants, Bears and Rabbits
    • Urolithiasis in Lagomorphs
    • Hypercalciuria in Rabbits
    • Endometrial Hyperplasia / Uterine polyps in Rabbits
    • Uterine Neoplasia in Rabbits
    • Endometrial Venous Aneurysms in Rabbits
    • Bladder polyps
    • Renal infarcts
    • Renal Infection in Rabbits
    • Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (seen in Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease)
    • Lead Poisoning
  • Haematuria appears to be more common in female rabbits, particularly older females with diseases of the uterus. (J495.37.w1)
  • The presence of cylindrical blood clots in the urine is highly suggestive of Endometrial Venous Aneurysms in Rabbits. (B602.18.w18)
• Rabbit urine may normally be cloudy due to precipitates of calcium carbonate. The amount of calcium carbonate in the urine depends on how much calcium is in the rabbit's diet. (B600.3.w3, J523.6.w1)
  • During growth, pregnancy and lactation, when calcium requirements are high, the urine may be clear. (B600.3.w3)
  • Urine volume (affected by hydration status) and pH also affect precipitation. (B600.3.w3)
  • The presence of a small amount of precipitate in the urine indicates adequate calcium in the diet. Cloudy urine without any associated clinical signs is not a problem. (B600.3.w3)
  • Excessive precipitate may result in a thick sludge and can lead to cystitis and urinary incontinence. (B600.3.w3)
  • The presence of triple phosphate crystals in the urine is normal. (B600.3.w3)
• Urinary incontinence may indicate:
  • Urethritis in Rabbits (which may be secondary to Hypercalciuria in Rabbits ). (B600.14.w14)
  • Encephalitozoonosis in Lagomorphs. (B600.14.w14)
  • Spinal cord compressive lesions. (B600.14.w14)
    • Spinal Injury in Lagomorphs
    • Intervertebral Disc Disease in Rabbits
• Polyuria may be seen with: (B601.9.w9)
  • Chronic Renal Failure in Lagomorphs
  • Severe liver disease such as Hepatic Lipidosis in Rabbits
  • Hypercalcaemia. See: Kidney Calcification in Rabbits
  • Hypokalaemia in Rabbits
  • Uterine Infection in Rabbits
  • Endotoxaemia
  • Renal Infection in Rabbits
  • Postobstructive diuresis
  • Hyperviscocity syndrome
  • Pregnancy Toxaemia in Lagomorphs
  • Diabetes Mellitus (this is very rare in rabbits)
  • Iatrogenic causes - diuretics, corticosteroids.
  • Primary polydipsia (associated with pain, e.g. dental disease, boredom, anorexia/food depravation, and stress)
    • Psychgenic Polydispia-Polyuria in Rabbits

Vomiting or regurgitation may be seen with:

• Gastroenteritis (B232.App1.w21)

• Gastro-intestinal Foreign Bodies in Rabbits and Ferrets (Physical-Traumatic Disease Summary)GI foreign body (B232.App1.w21)

• Gastrointestinal neoplasia (Neoplasia in Ferrets) (B232.App1.w21)

• Helicobacter mustelae gastritis in Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

• Insulinoma in Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

• Lymphoma in Ferrets (B232.App1.w2115.w15),

• Megaoesophagus in Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

• Metabolic disease (B232.App1.w21)

• Myeloma (Neoplasia in Ferrets) (B232.App1.w21)

• Oesophageal foreign body (Gastro-intestinal Foreign Bodies in Rabbits and Ferrets) (B232.App1.w21)

• Ibuprofen Toxicity in Ferrets

Diarrhoea can be a sign of

• Dietary intolerance (B232.App1.w21)

• Aleutian Disease in Ferrets (melaena is likely) (J213.2.w6)

• Canine Distemper with special reference to Ferrets and notes on Bears

• Gastroenteritis: (J213.2.w6)

  • Campylobacter Infection in Waterfowl and Ferrets

  • Colibacillosis

  • Eosinophilic Gastroenteritis in Ferrets

  • Epizootic Catarrhal Enteritis of Ferrets

  • Salmonellosis (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs, Elephants, Bears, Lagomorphs and Ferrets)

  • Rotavirus Infection in Rabbits and Ferrets with a note on Bears (B232.App1.w21)

• Gastro-intestinal Foreign Bodies in Rabbits and Ferrets (B232.App1.w21, J213.2.w6)

• Internal parasites: (B232.App1.w21, J213.2.w6)

  • Cryptosporidiosis in Mammals (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Elephants, Bears, Lagomorphs and Ferrets)

  • Gastro-Intestinal Nematode Infection in Ferrets

  • Giardia Infection in Mammals (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Lagomorphs and Ferrets)

  • Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs, Lagomorphs and Ferrets (with notes on Bears)

• Lymphoma in Ferrets (B232.15.w15)

• Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Ferrets

• Proliferative Bowel Disease in Ferrets (Bacterial Disease)

• Systemic infection (B232.App1.w21)

Melaena or tarry stools may occur with

• Aleutian Disease in Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

• Gastric Ulceration in Lagomorphs and Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

• Gastro-intestinal Foreign Bodies in Rabbits and Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

• Helicobacter mustelae gastritis in Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

• Hyperoestrogenism in Ferrets (B232.9.w9)

• Pregnancy Toxaemia in Lagomorphs and Ferrets (B232.App1.w21, J213.2.w6)

• Coagulopathy (J213.2.w6)

• Gastrointestinal neoplasia (Neoplasia in Ferrets) (J213.2.w6)

Haematuria may indicate:

• Bladder neoplasia (Neoplasia in Ferrets)

• Bacterial Cystitis in Ferrets

• Prostatic Cysts in Ferrets

• Pyelonephritis in Elephants, Lagomorphs and Ferrets

• Urolithiasis in Lagomorphs and Ferrets

• Note the substrate and its condition, including when it was cleaned out. Check for the presence or absence of faeces and look for any evidence of diarrhoea. (B670.5.w5)
  • The presence of diarrhoea is commonly the first indication of a gastrointestinal disease, but can also be a sign of other conditions such as hepatic disease or right-sided heart failure. (B644.10.w10)
  • Vomit is a rarer sign of gastrointestinal disease, particularly gastric disease, but can also indicate other problems such as renal failure, hepatic failure or pancreatitis. (B644.10.w10)
  • Lack of faeces (constipation) may indicate gastrointestinal disease or an abdominal mass. (B644.10.w10)
• Check for evidence of urinary output. (B670.5.w5)
• Do the substrate and enrichment items show signs of exploration, or have they been ignored? (B670.5.w5)
  • [Note: these are simpler to assess regarding an individual housed alone. In group-housed primates (and primates should usually be housed in groups), it is more difficult to determine individual urinary and faecal output, use of enrichment items etc. without direct observation. CCTV or a one-way viewing window facilitates observation without the primates knowing that they are being watched.]

• Environmental Assessment - General
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)

The first stage in the physical examination of a mammal is observation of the individual(s), preferably without it knowing it is being observed.

Observation is particularly valuable for wild mammals where conscious physical examination is not possible and chemical restraint is essential in order to carry out a full physical examination.

• Note: Non-predatory mammals may attempt to hide their illness; this is a survival tactic, as predators may be more likely to target an obviously unfit individual.
  • A mammal which appears bright and alert when being watched may appear increasingly weak when it thinks it is unobserved.
  • Careful attention should be paid to reports of problems from experienced management staff and others familiar with the individual; this may allow early recognition of problems which would not other wise be apparent at this stage.
  • If the animal's daily caretaker has noted that the animal is "not right" they are probably correct, even if no problem is apparent when the animal is observed by veterinary personnel. (P108.12.w2)
• Describe the animal's general demeanour (bright, alert responsive; quiet, alert, responsive; collapsed; comatose).
• Note any changes in behaviour.
  • Cessation of normal behaviours should be noted as well as the occurrence of abnormal behaviours.
  • Observe any abnormal behaviour patterns e.g. circling, head pressing, repetitive stereotyped movements.
• Note the interaction between the individual and others in the group, bearing in mind what is normal for that species and management system.
  • Changes in social interactions may indicate illness.
• General signs of illness include poor coat quality, a hunched appearance, partially closed eyes, the head held downwards, prolonged recumbency, straining, shivering, etc. Some vocalisations may indicate pain.
• Repeated attention of an animal directed towards one area of its body (for example repeated licking of the area) may indicate an injury or other localised problem.
• Evidence of effort to control an abnormally high or low body temperature should be noted.
  • Overheating (Sunstroke - Heatstroke, pyrexia) may be associated with signs such as open-mouth breathing, flared nostrils, sweating, resting as far away from artificial heat sources as possible, resting in shade. 
  • Chilling/hypothermia (Chilling/Hypothermia) may be associated with signs such as huddling in groups, shivering, piloerection ("hairs standing on end"), resting close to artificial heat sources.
• Foot or leg problems may cause a mammal to shift its weight from one leg to the other repeatedly, weight-bear on only one side constantly, or rest on the ground rather than stand.
• Describe any abnormalities of posture of the head, body and tail.
• Examine the animal's gait at a number of paces and activities where possible (e.g. walking, trotting, cantering, climbing).
  • Lameness should be characterised as shifting or continual, single or multiple limb (noting the limbs affected), and graded according to a system from barely visible to non-weight bearing lame.
• Note the respiratory rate, effort and character.
  • Increased respiratory effort may be seen as excessive chest movement, mouth-breathing with the neck outstretched, gasping, double expiratory effort in extreme cases, expiratory grunt.
• A variety of nervous signs may be seen, including ataxia, paresis, paralysis, torticollis, circling, convulsions, etc.
• Assess the reactivity of the mammal to stimuli (e.g. sound, visual) towards the end of the examination when the inevitable disturbance will not be too disruptive.
• Observation of behaviour and ability to navigate obstacles in a novel environment is useful for assessment of vision.
• For group problems, observation may give an indication of the proportion of animals which are sick, and whether the affected individuals are of a particular type (e.g. species, food type, sex, age class).

(B280.1.w1, B429.32.w32, P108.12.w2, V.w5, V.w26)

Assessment of pain

• Note: it can be difficult to assess pain in animals, particularly prey species. (J213.9.w4, J213.10.w2, J290.21.w1, J303.7.w1)
• Observer experience is important for accurate assessment of pain. (P54.2.w16)
• An understanding of the normal behaviour for the species is required in order to properly interpret behavioural signs of pain. (B322.4.w4)
• Wild animals, particularly of prey species, are very likely to hide signs of pain even when presenting with severe injuries. (J34.24.w2, J213.9.w4)

For further information on recognition of pain, see: Assessment of Pain in Ruminants

• Observation of the hedgehog is extremely useful where possible but is often made difficult because of their ability to roll into a tightly curled ball and remain in that position for prolonged periods of time.
  • Even in a tightly curled hedgehog it is possible to look for the presence of wounds, maggots (see: Myiasis), ticks (see: Tick Infection in Hedgehogs) and Caparinia mites (see: Caparinia Mange in Hedgehogs). (B291.12.w12)
• When hedgehogs first arrive as a casualty, the history, status of the animal, etc. may mean that the decision is taken not to spend time on observation at that stage. 
  • Instead, progression to 'hands on' brief physical examination with attempts to uncurl are used, often with progression to complete physical examination under general anaesthesia. 
  • See: Catching and Handling of Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
  • See: General Anaesthesia (Gaseous and Injectable) Techniques of Hedgehogs 
• Hedgehogs will only uncurl in quiet undisturbed surroundings; dimmed light and a non-slip surface (towel) may help the animal feel increasingly confident and encourage it to unroll. 
  • Considerable patience may be required.
  • Individual hedgehogs vary in their willingness or reluctance to uncurl.
  • Any attempts at physical handling after the hedgehog has become active will usually result in it rapidly rolling into a ball once again.(J15.21.w1)
• Where facilities exist, monitoring via remote CCTV (closed-circuit television) facilities, with or without video recording, is invaluable for observation.
• Peep holes within the pen doors of small enclosures used to house hedgehogs may be useful for observation.
• Normal hedgehogs will uncurl gradually with the head and forelimbs first becoming visible. After a pause evaluating their surroundings, they may then begin to move around. 
  • Whilst the legs are not normally visible during slow locomotion, hedgehogs can extend their limbs if they move quickly; at such times the undersole and heels of hind feet become clearly visible.(B254.2.w2)
  • Hedgehog hind quarters are usually held close to the ground during slow to moderate speed locomotion. (V.w26)
  • For further details on curling and uncurling behaviours See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Social Behaviour - Territoriality - Predation - Learning (Literature Reports) - Defensive behaviour
  • For further details on normal locomotion See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Activity Patterns, Grooming and Navigation Behaviour (Literature Reports) -Activity patterns
  • See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Appearance-Morphology- Legs, Spine and Tracks (Literature Reports)
• Thin and emaciated hedgehogs may have visibly hollowed, concave flanks which are most easily noted during locomotion.(V.w26)
• Assessment of gait should be used to detect lameness affecting single or multiple limbs.
  • Inability to walk normally is normal in hoglets less than about two and a half weeks old. (B337.3.w3)
  • Sick hedgehogs often develop an ataxic staggering gait with a continual fine tremor during movement.
    • This may be related to general weakness and debility, dehydration, low blood sugar levels, etc.(V.w26)
  • Wobbling and staggering or swaying may occur in hypothermic hoglets. (B337.3.w3)
  • Hedgehogs with pelvic fractures may walk splay-legged. (B337.3.w3)
  • Fracture or infection of a limb will cause lameness. (B337.3.w3)
  • Dragging of both hind limbs may indicate spinal trauma or possible Hedgehog Pop-off Syndrome.
  • Abnormal gait and/or circling may also be seen associated with head injuries and poisoning. (B337.3.w3)
• Assessment of the respiratory depth and character is particularly important in the hedgehog.
  • Respiratory rates for the hedgehog are highly variable.(B228.6.w6)
  • Average respiratory rates in resting hedgehogs during the active season are reported to be 25 breaths per minute, although values increase to approximately 50 breaths per minute at exercise.(B228.6.w6)
  • For further information on normal breathing and respiration see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports) - Respiration
  • Huffing and hissing is normal - a defensive noise. (B337.3.w3) (See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Social Behaviour - Territoriality - Predation - Learning (Literature Reports) - Defensive behaviour)
  • Noisy respiration may indicate:
    • Upper respiratory tract injury; See: Fractures in Hedgehogs, Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds, Crushing 
    • Upper respiratory tract infection, See: Hedgehog Dental Disease, 
    • lower respiratory tract infection (e.g. lungworm, bacterial pneumonia) See: Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs, Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection in Hedgehogs, Pasteurella Infection in Hedgehogs 
      • Hedgehog casualties with severe Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs, with or without secondary bacterial pneumonia, may show obvious breathing difficulties with laboured deep breathing, heaving flanks, open mouth, audible wheezing noise, green mucopurulent nasal discharge, chesty cough, possibly an outstretched neck , even gasping (J15.21.w1, B151, B291.12.w12, V.w26)
    • Smoke or fluid inhalation. See: Burns and Smoke Inhalation, Drowning 
    • Chest injury (bites or crushing) See: Fractures in Hedgehogs, Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds, Crushing (B337.3.w3)
  • Dyspnoea and open-mouth breathing indicate severe damage to the respiratory system and the prognosis is generally poor. (B284.6.w6)
• Assess the demeanour and reactivity of the hedgehog.
  • Normal healthy hedgehogs will respond very quickly to sound or movement by stopping movement, flinching the head, or curling into a ball, dependent on the circumstance and individual.
  • Very sick and debilitated hedgehogs may be too weak to curl into a tight ball and instead typically lay on their belly or slightly on their side in a limp state with their limbs only loosely held to the body. (V.w26).
  • The normal response of the spines to even a slight touch can be greatly reduced in a very sick hedgehog. (B291.12.w12)
• Neurological signs which may be seen include ataxia, paralysis, circling, etc.
  • The strange movements, with excessive saliva production, during self-anointing behaviour should not be mistaken for abnormalities such as convulsions or spasms.
  • Self-anointing behaviour has lead to confusion with the diagnosis of Rabies infection in the hedgehog.(B22.27.w3)
  • For further details on self-anointing see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Activity Patterns, Grooming and Navigation Behaviour (Literature Reports) - Self-grooming
• Hyperactivity is often stress related. (B337.3.w3)
  • Hyperactivity may be seen associated with parasitic infections particularly fluke (Hedgehog Intestinal Fluke Infection) and coccidia (Intestinal Coccidiosis in Hedgehogs). (B337.3.w3)
  • Hyperactivity may be seen in female hedgehogs just before giving birth. (B337.3.w3)
  • Hyperactivity may be seen in male hedgehogs in care in early spring when they want to wander looking for females. (B337.3.w3)
  • Hyperactivity may be seen in an individual which is on a heated pad and is too warm. (B337.3.w3)
  • Hyperactivity, racing around the cage in circles, may be seen in a blind hedgehog; providing a boxed sleep area may reduce this activity. (B337.3.w3)
• Scratching may be seen associated with ectoparasites such as maggots (Myiasis) and mite infections (e.g. Caparinia Mange in Hedgehogs, Sarcoptic mange)
• Failure to eat may be seen with bacterial infections, dehydration, hypothermia, weakness, intestinal parasites, injuries to the jaw or the roof of the mouth (see: Fractures in Hedgehogs, Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds), dental problems (Hedgehog Dental Disease), the presence of a foreign body in the mouth (Oral Foreign Bodies in Hedgehogs), or a blocked nose making it difficult for the hedgehog to breath and eat at the same time. (B337.3.w3)
• Unpleasant smells may be noted in individuals with infected wounds (Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds), dental problems (Hedgehog Dental Disease), diarrhoea, skin problems (mite infection e.g. Caparinia Mange in Hedgehogs and ringworm (Ringworm in Hedgehogs)), or contamination with a foreign substance including oily smells associated with victims of road traffic accidents and musty smell if a fox has urinated on the hedgehog while attacking it. A smell of burning may be noticed in individuals which have been burned (Burns and Smoke Inhalation) (B337.3.w3)
• Assessment of interaction with conspecifics:
  • Hedgehogs are an essentially solitary species which are typically housed as individuals, at least in the initial stages of rehabilitation. Assessment of interaction with peers is therefore not an important part of the observation.
  • For further information see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Social Behaviour - Territoriality - Predation - Learning (Literature Reports) - Social behaviour

(B22.27.w3, B228.6.w6, B254.2.w2, J15.21.w1, V.w26)

• It has been recommended to first observe the elephant from a distance of two to three metres (6.5-10.0 feet) and from multiple directions. (B455.w1)
• Assess of the body condition: (B455.w1)
  • The elephant should not be too thin or too heavy. (B455.w1)
  • Temporal depression, protrusion of ribs or scapular spines, and a sunken flank may indicate poor condition. (B455.w1)
  • A body scoring system for Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant has been developed. (B455.w1)
• Assess appetite: note whether the elephant appears to be eating; decreased appetite or complete anorexia is a general sign of ill health in elephants. (B10.49.w21)
• Assess activity and demeanour:
  • A normal healthy elephant is alert, with constant movements of the trunk, ears, tail and legs. Ill elephants show decreased alertness and decreased or absent movements. (B10.49.w21)
  • Signs such as listless, decreased activity, exercise intolerance and recumbency have been associated with:
    • Arteriosclerosis in Elephants
    • Calcium-Vitamin D Metabolism Imbalance
    • Clostridium perfringens Infection in Elephants
    • Clostridium septicum Infection in Elephants
    • Degenerative Joint Disease in Elephants
    • Encephalomyocarditis
    • Herpesvirus Infection in Elephants
    • Mammalian Tuberculosis
    • Rabies
    • Salmonellosis
    • Sunstroke - Heatstroke
    • Tetanus
    • Vitamin E - Selenium Deficiency
  • Lameness and reluctance to move has been associated with:

    • Arteriosclerosis in Elephants

    • Calcium-Vitamin D Metabolism Imbalance

    • Degenerative Joint Disease in Elephants

    • Foot-and-Mouth Disease
      • (Note: Details of the disease in elephants are given on the page Foot and Mouth Disease - Editorial Overview of Disease Characteristics for specified SPECIES-TAXA)

    • Foot problems:

      • Cuticle Overgrowth in Elephants

      • Foot Wounds in Elephants

      • Heel Cracks in Elephants

      • Ingrowing Nails in Elephants

      • Nail Abscess in Elephants

      • Nail Cracks in Elephants

      • Nail Overgrowth in Elephants

      • Overworn Sole in Elephants

      • Pododermatitis in Elephants

      • Sole Abscess in Elephants

      • Sole Cracks in Elephants

      • Sole Overgrowth in Elephants

    • Mycoplasma Infection

    • Poxvirus Infection in Elephants
    • Scurvy in Elephants
• Assess the condition of the skin and presence of any lesions. "The normal healthy skin is soft and wrinkled, uniformly warm to touch, free from scurf, almost black in color and has no appearance of glaze along the side of the spine or the hip. The skin over the nails should be moist from sweat. This can be tested by applying dust which should stick". (B455.w1)
• Observe the eyes for abnormal ocular discharges, corneal scars, or cataracts. (B455.w1)
• The tusks should be observed closely for asymmetry of growth or discoloration: 

  • Bacterial Tusk Infection in Elephants

  • Tusk Injury in Elephants

• A bad smell around the mouth may indicate a dental disorder such as: (B455.w1)

  • Molar Malocclusion in Elephants

  • Periodontitis in Elephants

• Frequent groaning indicates pain. (B10.49.w21)

• Abdominal pain may be indicated by abnormal behaviours including "restlessness, lying down and getting up, placing the trunk in the mouth, biting the tip of the trunk, or assuming abnormal postures such as crossing the rear legs." (B10.49.w21)

• Dependent oedema may be noticed. (B10.49.w21)

  • See: Idiopathic Ventral Oedema in Elephants

• Changes in the bear's normal activity level and behaviour may indicate illness. Sick or injured bears may show dramatic changes in behaviour or temperament. (D247.8.w8, P106.2007.w5)

• Anthrax (with special reference to Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears)
• Blastomycosis in Bears
• Bacterial Gastroenteritis in Bears
• Clostridium perfringens Infection in Elephants and Bears
• Elokomin Fluke Fever in Bears
• Gastritis in Bears
• Hepatic and Bile Duct Neoplasia in Bears
• Hypothyroidism in Bears
• Intestinal Volvulus in Bears
• Neoplasia in Bears
• Pancreatic Necrosis in Bears
• Pseudorabies in Bears
• Sarcocystosis in Waterfowl and Bears
• Salmon Poisoning in Bears
• Tick Toxicosis in Bears
• Trichobezoars in Bears
• Trypanosomiasis in Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears

Depression and cough may be noted with:

• Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection in Hedgehogs and Bears

Anorexia may be noted with: 

• Anthrax (with special reference to Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears)
• Bacterial Gastroenteritis in Bears
• Elokomin Fluke Fever in Bears
• Blastomycosis in Bears
• Hookworm Infection in Bears
• Infectious Canine Hepatitis (with special reference to Bears) (Disease Link Page)
• Intestinal Volvulus in Bears (Miscellaneous Disease Summary)
• Oral Foreign Bodies in Hedgehogs and Bears (also salivation, pawing at the mouth)
• Various tumours (Neoplasia in Bears)
• Pancreatic Necrosis in Bears
• Pseudorabies in Bears (with inability to drink or swallow)
• Salmon Poisoning in Bears
• Tick Toxicosis in Bears
• Trichinella Infection in Hedgehogs and Bears (although infection is usually asymptomatic)
• Trichobezoars in Bears
• Trypanosomiasis in Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears

Scratching or other signs of pruritis may be noted with:

• Dermatophilosis in Bears
• Pythiosis in Bears
• Vitamin A-responsive Skin Disease in Bears
• Trichinella Infection in Hedgehogs and Bears
• Pseudorabies in Bears (localised or generalised pruritis leading to self mutilation)

Reluctance to enter the water has been noted in bears with:

• Dermatophilosis in Bears

Respiratory:

• Panting is indicative of high body temperature. See: Hyperthermia - Sunstroke - Heatstroke in Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears.
• Respiratory signs may indicate distemper (see: Canine Distemper (with notes on Bears)).
• Dyspnoea has been seen in Pseudorabies in Bears.
• Snoring noises may be noted with Respiratory Disease in Bear Cubs.
• Hyperpneoa was an initial sign in Ruptured Intervertebral Disk in a Bear.
• Occasional coughing and intermittent stertorous breathing were noted in a captive ten-year-old female Ursus americanus - American black bear which was found to have a laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (see: Neoplasia in Bears). (J2.36.w1).
• Tachypnoea and dyspnoea were present in bears with trypanosomiais (Trypanosomiasis in Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears) .

Pain may or may not be evident with:

• Calcium-Vitamin D Metabolism Imbalance (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Elephants and Bears)
• Dental Disease in Bears

Abdominal pain is evident with:

• Acute Gastric Dilatation in Bears
• Gastritis in Bears
• Infectious Canine Hepatitis (with special reference to Bears)
• Intestinal Volvulus in Bears
• Oleander Poisoning in Waterfowl and Bears
• Trichobezoars in Bears

Vomiting may be associated with gastritis, toxicity, or neoplasia:

• Gastritis in Bears
• Neoplasia in Bears
• Oleander Poisoning in Waterfowl and Bears
• Yew Toxicity in Bears

Paralysis and/or aggression may be seen associated with Rabies)

Nervousness and agitation has been noted in Pseudorabies in Bears

Excessive salivation has been noted in Pseudorabies in Bears

Ataxia may be seen with

• Infectious Canine Hepatitis (with special reference to Bears)
• Tick Toxicosis in Bears
• Trypanosomiasis in Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears

Cessation of urination was seen in a bear with Urolithiasis in Bears (Miscellaneous Disease Summary)

Seizures may be seen in bears with:

• Epilepsy and Convulsions in Bears (Miscellaneous Disease Summary)
• Hydrocephalus in Bears (Miscellaneous Disease Summary)
• Strychnine Poisoning in Waterfowl and Bears (Toxic Disease Summary)

• It is particularly important to observe critically ill rabbits before they are handled. (J213.1.w1)

The following should be observed:

• General demeanour and degree of alertness. (B601.2.w2, J72.48.w1, J213.1.w1, J213.2.w2)
  • Additional assessment may be possible when the rabbit is able to move around. (B600.3.w3)
• Posture. (B601.2.w2, J72.48.w1, J213.2.w2)
  • The rabbit's head should be erect, with symmetrically-held ears. (J72.48.w1
  • Torticollis may be seen with: (B601.App2.w20, J83.19.w2)
    • Encephalitozoonosis in Lagomorphs
    • Bacterial Otitis Media - Interna in Lagomorphs
    • Less commonly
      • Meningitis
      • Listeriosis 
      • Cerebral abscess (Abscessation in Lagomorphs)
      • Hypovitaminosis A in Lagomorphs (this is rare)
• Group behaviour: whether, if in a group, they are huddled together (normal behaviour for domestic rabbits unless it is very hot) or are apart.
• Respiratory rate, rhythm and depth (nose twitching is normal). (B601.2.w2, J72.48.w1m J213.2.w2)
  • This can be assessed by watching nasal movements (or chest movements if these are visible). (J213.1.w1)
  • The normal respiratory rate is 32-60 breaths per minute. (B600.3.w3); 30-60 breaths per minute. (J213.2.w2)
  • Dyspnoea (seen as cyanosis, mouth breathing, depression, distress and sometimes audible respiratory noise) (B600.3.w3), as well as postural changes including sternal recumbency, elbows held slightly away from the body, extension of the neck and possibly reluctance to move (J15.27.w1) may be seen with: (B600.13.w13, B601.App2.w20)
    • Respiratory disease (e.g. Bacterial Pneumonia in Rabbits, Pasteurellosis in Lagomorphs).
    • Trauma - Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds
    • Viral haemorrhagic disease (Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease)
    • Cardiac disease (e.g. Cardiomyopathy in Rabbits, Congestive Heart Failure in Rabbits).
    • Pregnancy Toxaemia in Lagomorphs.
    • Hepatic Lipidosis in Rabbits.
    • Severe pain.
    • Note: rabbits are obligate nasal breathers; panting or open-mouth breathing is a serious sign and should be treated as an emergency. Provide a quiet, oxygen rich environment. (J15.27.w1)
  • Increased respiratory rate may indicate: (B600.3.w3)
    • Stress.
    • Pain.
    • Hyperthermia - Sunstroke - Heatstroke
    • Infection.
    • Respiratory disease.
    • Metabolic acidosis.
• Any obvious physical abnormalities. (J213.2.w2)
• Gait/locomotion. It is essential to watch the rabbit moving in order to detect lameness and abnormal gait or posture. (J213.2.w2)
  • Spinal problems or fractures can result in abnormal gait. (B600.3.w3)
  • Neurological deficits may be more evident when the rabbit is moving. (B600.3.w3)
  • Note: Assessment is difficult on a slippery surface. (B600.3.w3)
  • Paresis or paralysis may be associated with: (B601.App2.w20, J15.28.w1)
    • Spinal fracture or luxation (Spinal Injury in Lagomorphs)
    • Spondylosis/spondylitis (Spinal Abnormalities in Rabbits)
    • Spinal abscess (Abscessation in Lagomorphs)
    • Intervertebral Disc Disease in Rabbits
    • Encephalitozoonosis in Lagomorphs
    • Toxoplasmosis
    • Osteoarthritis.
    • Splay Leg in Lagomorphs
    • Hypovitaminosis A in Lagomorphs
  • Myesthenia gravis has been suggested as a possible cause of muscular weakness in rabbits, but not proven. (B600.12.w12)
• General coat quality. (B601.2.w2)
  • The fur should be clean and dry, without any mats of fur. (B601.2.w2)

Signs of pain in rabbits

• Rabbits, which are prey animals, may not show pain-related behaviours when they know they are being observed, since expressing pain might attract predators. (B601.16.w16)
• It can be difficult to distinguish signs of apprehension (common in a rabbit in an unfamiliar environment) from signs of pain. (J213.1.w1)

The following behaviours may indicate pain:

• Abdominal muscle contractions. (B601.16.w16)
• Pressing the abdomen to the ground. (B601.16.w16)
• Keeping at the back of the cage/pen, facing away from any observers. (B615.7.w7)
• Hiding. (B601.3.w3)
• Apprehension. (J213.1.w1)
• Worried or anxious facial expression (J213.1.w1)
• Abnormal posture. (B615.7.w7)
• Hunched, immobile posture. (B600.3.w3, B601.3.w3, B615.7.w7, J213.1.w1)
  • Or the rabbit may be stretched out in response to abdominal or foot pain. (J213.1.w1)
• Abnormal gait when encouraged to move. (B615.7.w7)
• Inactivity. (B602.22.w22) Reluctance to move or to keep moving. (B615.7.w7, J213.1.w1)
• Reduced reactivity to external stimuli. (B602.22.w22)
• Vocalisation in response to approach or handling. (B615.7.w7)
  • Rabbits in severe pain/distress may vocalise with a high pitched scream. (V.w26)
• Uncharacteristic aggressive response to approach or handling. (B601.3.w3, B615.7.w7, J213.1.w1)
• Coat unkempt or ruffled (due to lack of normal grooming). (B601.3.w3, B615.7.w7)
  • Sometimes overgrooming is a sign of pain. (B601.3.w3)
• Anorexia or reduced food intake. (B602.22.w22, B615.7.w7)
• Reduced water intake. (B601.3.w3, B615.7.w7)
  • Sometimes polydipsia. (B601.3.w3)
• Tooth grinding. (B600.3.w3, B601.3.w3, B602.22.w22)
  • With severe, usually visceral pain e.g. intestinal impaction. (B600.3.w3, J213.1.w1)
• Dyspnoea. (B601.App2.w20)
• Self-trauma. (B601.3.w3)
• Pushing the abdomen to the floor. (B601.3.w3
• Extension/elevation of the head. (B601.3.w3)
• Piloerection. (B601.3.w3)
• Change in respiration. (J213.1.w1)
• Increased respiratory rate. (B601.3.w3)

Neurological signs may indicate: (B601.App2.w20)

• Encephalitozoonosis in Lagomorphs
• Bacterial Otitis Media / Interna in Lagomorphs
• Hyperthermia / Sunstroke / Heatstroke in Waterfowl, Elephants, Bears, and Lagomorphs
• Trauma
• Toxoplasmosis
• Listeriosis
• Epilepsy (rare in rabbits) See: Epilepsy and Convulsions in Bears and Lagomorphs
• Pregnancy Toxaemia in Lagomorphs
• Splay Leg in Lagomorphs
• Hypovitaminosis A in Lagomorphs (rare in rabbits)
• Vitamin E - Selenium Deficiency (rare in rabbits)

The ferret should be observed in its travelling cage (carrier) or on the examination table before it is restrained for physical examination. (J29.6.w1) 

Observe the ferret while it is in a carrying basket (if you can get a good view through the wire from a distance) or with the ferret free on the floor of the consulting room. (B631.18.w18) The history can be taken at the same time (History & Documentation). (B631.18.w18)

• The ferret should be alert and responsive to its surroundings; if it has been asleep in its travelling cage, it should be alert and active once it is awake. (B602.2.w2, B631.18.w18, B339.9.w9, J15.24.w5, J213.2.w6)

  • If the ferret remains lethargic, this is a sign of ill health. (J15.24.w5)

• If the ferret is moving very fast, with very bright eyes, vocalisation and a "bottle brush tail", it is excited and/or fearful and is more likely to bite. (B631.18.w18)

• Check the ferret's gait. (J213.2.w6)

  • It is normal for the ferret's back to be arched when it is walking or running. (B339.9.w9, J213.2.w6)

  • Hopping, shuffling and moving backwards are all normal in playful ferrets. (J213.2.w6)

• Does the ferret's coat look bright and shiny or dull and staring? Is there any loss of fur (alopecia)? (B631.18.w18)

• Note any scratching, rubbing the body on the ground, or abnormal grooming which may be associated with skin disease. (J16.30.w1)

• Look for obvious signs of disease or abnormal behaviour. (J29.6.w1)

• Note the breathing rate and whether there is any associated noise. (B631.18.w18, J213.2.w6)

  • The normal respiratory rate is 33-36 breaths per minute; respiratory rate may change once the ferret is handled. (B339.9.w9)

  • Panting is abnormal and may indicate Hyperthermia - Sunstroke - Heatstroke in Waterfowl, Elephants, Bears, Lagomorphs and Ferrets. Check the ferret's rectal temperature. (J213.4.w7)

• If ferrets can be observed with their usual ferret companion(s), note any aggression or behaviours indicating excess dominance. (J16.30.w1)

• A ferret clawing at its mouth with its front paws indicates nausea or sometimes an oral problem. (J213.4.w7)

  • Check the mouth for a foreign body such as a piece of food stuck on the upper palate (Oral Foreign Bodies in Hedgehogs, Bears and Ferrets), or for ulceration or infection. (J213.4.w7)

  • Other signs of nausea include tooth grinding while closing the eyes, rhythmic grimacing and ear twitching. (J213.4.w7)

  • Causes of nausea include hypoglycaemia due to Insulinoma in Ferrets, Helicobacter mustelae Gastritis in Ferrets, other gastritis, or Acute Renal Failure in Lagomorphs and Ferrets. (J213.4.w7)

• In primates in general, observation of the general attitude, activity and food consumption are important. The person caring for the animals on a day to day basis may notice subtle changes which otherwise might not be seen. (B10.44.w44f)
• In order to properly assess a primate's appearance, behaviour and general demeanour, it is important for the observer to be familiar with the species and the individual animal: to know what is and is not normal. (B670.5.w5)
  • The primate's response to the observer is part of the assessment. This may be a positive response, or staying very still but being very aware of the observer, or appearing non-responsive. (B670.5.w5)
  • Sufficient time should be allowed for the visual assessment. (B670.5.w5)
• In Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee, lethargy, reduced social activity and lack of appetite are common general indicators of illness, as are other signs which, if seen in a human, would indicate ill health. (D409.6.w6)

In addition to behaviour, assessment of primates before any handling should include:

• The respiratory rate and effort while the individual is resting. (B10.44.w44b, B644.7.w7)
• Respiratory effort:
  • Open mouth breathing at rest suggests bilateral nasal obstruction, nasopharyngeal obstruction or severe disease of the lower respiratory tract. (B644.7.w7)
  • Dyspnoea may be worst when the individual lies down; the affected individual may avoid lying down.  (B644.7.w7)
• Cyanosis, which indicates severe disease. (B644.7.w7)
• Any coughing or sneezing. (B644.7.w7)
• The condition of the skin and hair coat. Fur loss may indicate bacterial or parasitic infection of the skin, or hair pulling (overgrooming) by the individual or by cage mates, suggesting psychological problems such as boredom, or stress due to bullying. (B670.5.w5)
• General assessment of body condition. (B670.5.w5)
• Head and eye movements, nostrils, front teeth, and discharges, swellings or unevenness. (B670.5.w5)
  • Facial swelling or a draining tract on the face may suggest dental infection. (B644.10.w10)
• Locomotion, including any signs of imbalance or lameness; whether all four limbs are used normally. (B670.5.w5)
• External genitalia, if the primate posterior presents or otherwise shows these. (B670.5.w5)
• Any straining to defecate, which may indicate gastrointestinal disease. (B644.10.w10)
• Whether the abdomen appears distended (may indicate gastrointestinal disease). (B644.10.w10)

Signs of pain

• Overt signs of pain in a non-human primate may be minimal. (B670.5.w5)
• A primate with pain may appear miserable, have a hunched posture, or crouch with its head forward and arms across its body. Further signs include cessation of grooming, a "sad" expression, glassy eyes, avoidance of companions, moaning and grunting, refusal of food and drink. (B670.5.w5)
• With acute abdominal pain, signs include facial contortions, tooth clenching, restlessness and shaking. (B670.5.w5)
• Note: companions may show increased affiliative behaviours such as grooming, or increased aggressive behaviour (attacking the ill individual). (B670.5.w5)
• If the whole group is affected by a painful condition, all may be showing similar signs. (B670.5.w5)
• Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee, like other wild animals, generally mask signs of pain and illness, therefore visible signs suggest high discomfort levels. (D409.6.w6)

• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Assessment of Pain in Ruminants

• In order to carry out a proper physical examination, the animal must be appropriately restrained. Restraint should avoid injury to the mammal, the handler or the person carrying out the examination. 
  • Covering the head may assist in keeping many mammals quiet during the examination and also reduces their ability to direct attacks at the catchers.
• Human safety should be of paramount importance when considering handling for physical examination. (See Human Health Considerations section on this page).
• Before starting the examination, consider what potential weapons the mammal may use in defence, such as horns, antlers, spurs, hooves, teeth and claws.
  • Larger carnivores are particularly dangerous; they are capable of inflicting severe bites and claw wounds.
• Minimise the time for which the animal must be restrained:
  • Before catching for treatment, make sure that a list has been prepared of all procedures which need to be carried out, and that all equipment and medications required are ready. This will minimise handling time. 
• When dealing with wild mammals, whether free-ranging or captive, consideration must be given to the stress which the animal is likely to experience during a physical examination and whether it should therefore be performed on the animal conscious, or whether safe chemical restraint, possibly remote, should be used instead.
  • The decision as to whether the wild mammal should be examined conscious or under chemical restraint may also depend on the expected duration of the procedure, whether any diagnostic tests may be required following examination, and whether the examination or tests are likely to be painful.
• Where safe conscious physical examination of mammals with minimal stress is possible (e.g. many domestic mammals, tame individuals and neonates), this may be preferable to chemical restraint.
  • Potential risks associated with the use of anaesthetic drugs can be avoided. 
  • The condition of the animal can be judged and samples taken for assessment (e.g. blood). Where progression to the use of chemical restraint (sedation or general anaesthesia) is necessary, the animal can be first be stabilised and drug protocols associated with least risk selected.
• Note: Some animals are trained to allow physical examination without restraint. See: Mammal Handling & Movement - Husbandry Training 
• Physical restraint for examination of wild mammals requires experience; advice should be taken from experienced management staff if the examiner is insufficiently familiar with the species.
• Devices to aid with physical restraint may be useful and available in some instances e.g. raceways, crushes.
• The risk of Capture Myopathy varies between species of mammals but should be noted when planning whether to use conscious handling for clinical examination or alternatively to sedate the animal by remote injection (i.e. darting).
  • Prolonged physical restraint increases the risk of the development of Capture Myopathy.
• In some situations, particularly where an animal can be easily targeted, the use of darting techniques may greatly reduce the stress of capture and handling when compared with physical capture combined with hand-injection. In using darting techniques, the following points must be remembered:
  • The size of needle, volume and viscosity of the fluid, and the amount of power used to project the dart should be appropriate to the size of the muscle mass and thickness of the skin. The use of inappropriate equipment and materials can cause serious damage to the animal.
  • Licences are required for the use of darting equipment in the UK; darting should only be undertaken by experienced personnel holding the requisite UK firearms licences.. (See: Law Reference LUK24 - Firearms Acts 1968-1997)
  (V.w6)
• Particular care should be taken when handling small, quickly moving mammals, to prevent their escape or accidental damage inflicted by the operator.
• Particular care should be taken with the handling of long-legged species (e.g. deer) to avoid any accidental injury caused by man. This is particularly important if nets (including "walk-towards" nets) are used, which can involve a considerable risk of limb fractures.
• The anatomy of certain species and ability to curl up making areas of their body inaccessible may make general anaesthesia essential for complete or prolonged examination, e.g. armadillos (Dasypodidae - Armadillos (Family)), hedgehogs (Erinaceidae - Hedgehogs (Family)).
• See: Wildlife Casualty Handling and Transport; Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination

(B123, J213.9.w4, V.w5, V.w6, V.w26)

• Safety of the examiner should be of paramount importance at all stages.
• Risks to human health, both physical and risks of zoonotic illness, must be considered. (Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974)
• When first disturbed, hedgehogs may make huffing noises or cough and move suddenly in jerky motions.(J15.21.w1, V.w26)
• The natural defence strategy of the hedgehog is to roll into a ball, which although inconvenient to the examiner, does not increase the person's risks of injury.
• It is recommended that gloves such as latex gloves are worn whilst handling hedgehogs to reduce the chances of transmission of zoonotic infections (e.g. Salmonellosis and Hedgehog ringworm)
• Although it is rare, hedgehogs may bite occasionally and bite wounds can become infected.(J15.21.w1, B123)
  • If a hedgehog bites it may repeat the bite several times rapidly. The best response to a bite is to wait until the hedgehog has let go before trying to withdraw the hand quickly. (B291.12.w12)
• Physical examination of the hedgehog is complicated by their ability to curl into a tight ball and remain in that position for prolonged periods of time.(B16.13.w13)
• (For further details on curling and uncurling behaviours See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Social Behaviour - Territoriality - Predation - Learning (Literature Reports) - Defensive behaviour)
• Hedgehogs which present as casualties which are not sufficiently strong to roll into a ball are seriously ill and in need of urgent treatment. (J60.1.w2)
• Except when a life-threatening condition is present (e.g. haemorrhage, obstruction of breathing) a full physical examination should not be undertaken until the casualty hedgehog has had a chance to rest quietly and its condition stabilise after transport. (B118.18.w18) Hedgehogs will be more likely to unroll after a quiet period of stabilisation.
• Brief physical examination is often possible using techniques to encourage unrolling in the hedgehog.
  • See: Catching and Handling of Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
  • Conscious examination with the hedgehog unrolled is usually limited to visual inspection of the limbs and undercarriage. Palpation of the hedgehog will usually cause it to roll up into a tight ball.
  • Pain will often cause the hedgehog to roll up into a ball.(J15.21.w1)
  • Brief examination is desirable, wherever possible, since it allows the examiner to more accurately assess the animals condition. Initial treatment including fluid therapy can be given and an educated decision made as to whether and when to progress to physical examination under general anaesthesia.
  • A mirror may be used to inspect the underside of a hedgehog without needing to turn it over.(B337.3.w3)
• General anaesthesia is necessary for all but the briefest of physical examinations.(B228.11.w11)
• Progression to complete physical examination under general anaesthesia is often required for hedgehogs which are unwilling to unroll and where prolonged examination is required.(B150.w1, J34.24.w1, B291.12.w12)
  • This is essential if there is evidence to suggest a serious medical condition may be present e.g. foul smell, burnt spines, haemorrhage, entangling in netting, maggots, distressed vocalisation, history of trauma. 
• As with all wild mammal casualties, the degree of stress which the hedgehog will experience as a result of physical examination should be considered. Where prolonged examination is likely to be required, general anaesthesia may be preferable to attempts at conscious examination.
• Hedgehogs are very sensitive to high frequency sounds and noises such as chirping and hissing, as well as clattering of instruments, should be avoided when hedgehogs are being handled. (B291.12.w12)

(B16.13.w13, B118.18.w18, B123, B150.w1, B228.11.w11, B291.12.w12, J15.21.w1, J34.24.w1, J60.1.w2, V.w26)

• Elephants are very large, heavy and strong, highly intelligent, can move surprisingly quickly and can be highly strung at times: 
  • Depending on the management system (free contact / no contact / protected contact), and the character and training of the individual elephant, it may be necessary to carry out any hands-on procedure with the elephant under sedation and/or in an elephant restraint device.
  • There is always some risk to personnel involved when carrying out hands-on procedures on a conscious elephant.
  • There is always some risk to the elephant when sedation is used, especially if full anesthesia is required.

  (V.w6, V.w72, V.w84, V.w86, V.w88)

• Care must be taken to ensure that personnel working nearby are aware that a hands-on procedure is being carried out. Both personnel directly involved with the procedure, and those working nearby, need to ensure that movements and noise (from telephones, bleepers, shutting doors, heavy machinery etc.) that might disturb the elephant, both inside and outside the elephant area, are minimized during the procedure. This includes activities at nearby enclosures that might be audible to the elephant and could startle it. (V.w6, V.w72, V.w84, V.w86, V.w88)
• Expertise and experience of the elephant handler(s) are critical when carrying out hands-on procedures on a conscious elephant. (V.w6, V.w72, V.w84, V.w86, V.w88)
• Before starting a physical examination, always ask the keeper about the elephant’s temperament.
• A bull in musth should never be approached by a stranger. To determine if the bull is in musth, the perineum should be observed for obvious swelling and the temporal gland openings for swelling and/or discharges. (B455.w1)
• It has been recommended that the examiner verbally communicate to the elephant before actually touching him, however some elephant keepers in the U.S. prefer that the examiner do not speak directly to the elephant. (B455.w1)
• The physical examination should be performed in a consistent manner that will include all the body systems. (B455.w1)
• The examiner should be familiar with the vitals and signs of health and disease in elephants.
• If the tuberculosis (TB) status is unknown, or TB or other potentially zoonotic diseases are suspected, the examiner should consider wearing protective clothing and using protective equipment, including gloves and a hepa-filter mask. (B455.w1)
• It has been recommended to first observe the elephant from a distance and from multiple directions then conduct a close examination starting at the left side of the head and proceed along the left side of the body to the rear of the elephant and then to the right side, ending at the head. All body areas are observed or palpated. (B455.w1)

• Chemical restraint is required for handling, examining and treating adult bears. (B64.26.w5, B16.9.w9, B429.3.w3)

  • However, positive reinforcement training can be used to allow physical examination of long-term captive bears without the need for physical or chemical restraint, in a protected-contact situation. (N19.15.w2) For further information see: Mammal Handling & Movement - Husbandry Training

For Ursus americanus - American black bear cubs during rearing and rehabilitation:

• Use manual restraint if possible; sedation should be used only if required for the safety of those performing the physical assessment. (B338.23.w23)
• Small cubs can be scruffed (picked up by the skin over the shoulders). (J417.20.w1)
• Cubs under 7.2 kg (16 lb) (J417.20.w1); or under 9 kg, (P62.9.w1) can be handled and restrained using heavy gloves or blankets to protect the handler.
• Young cubs should be masked down with isoflurane while hand-held (gloves and blanket) to allow blood sampling and e.g. removal of ticks. (P62.13.w2)
• Cubs over 9 kg, anaesthetise with 4 mg/kg Tiletamine-Zolazepam, intramuscularly, given by pole-syringe or dart pistol. (P62.13.w2)
• From about 7.2-18 kg, restrain with a strong net then inject with immobilising drugs using a pole syringe. (J417.20.w1)
• Juveniles weighing more than about 18 kg need to be chemically restrained for handling, as with adults. (J417.20.w1)

For wild bears in rehabilitation

• Usually chemical restraint is required except for young cubs. (J417.20.w1)

• A juvenile Ursus americanus - American black bear which is unconscious due to impact with a vehicle may be examined without chemical restraint but with great care, considering the risks to the handler(s) if the bear suddenly regains consciousness. Examination should be carried out in a secure, enclosed area, and preparations should be in place to provide chemical immobilisation if it is needed. (J417.20.w1)

For information on chemical restraint see:

• Treatment and Care - Anaesthesia

• Lagomorphs can both scratch and bite.
• Rabbits have a relatively delicate skeleton (8% of total body weight, compared to 12-13% in domestic cats) and are prone to fractures of the long bones or skull during struggling. (B602.14.w14, J213.2.w2)
• Rabbits have a very powerful kick; a single kick with the hind legs when a rabbit is being restrained can be enough to subluxate or fracture lumbar or lumbosacral vertebrae, with permanent paralysis resulting. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)

Handling

• Lagomorphs should be approached calmly and quietly; avoid sudden movements while approaching and handling lagomorphs. (B601.2.w2, J72.48.w1, J213.2.w2)
  • Talking quietly may be helpful while approaching domestic rabbits. (J72.48.w1)
• Always keep control over the rabbit. (B602.14.w14)
• A lagomorph which struggles excessively when restrained should be placed back in a suitable carrying box or onto a solid surface. (J213.2.w2)
  • Note: Stress of handling can result in excessive release of catecholamines and endogenous steroids; these can cause tachycardia, hypertension, hyperglycaemia and reduced renal perfusion - changes which are likely to further compromise an already ill individual. (B601.2.w2)
  • Excessive sympathetic nervous system stimulation can lead to fatal cardiac arrest. (B601.2.w2)
• Ensure that any surface the animal is being held on is non-slip; rubber mats, large towels etc. can be used on a stainless-steel examining table to provide a less slippery surface. (B602.14.w14, J213.1.w1, J213.2.w2)
  • A small towel is not adequate; it can be kicked off the table. (B602.14.w14)
• Do not obstruct the nostrils: lagomorphs are obligate nasal breathers. (B601.2.w2)
• Remember that a sudden movement by the animal during a clinical procedure such as venipuncture could result in iatrogenic injury to tissues (laceration, formation of haematoma). (B601.2.w2)
• Wrapping a rabbit in a towel may be helpful if the rabbit is panicking. (J213.1.w1)

Handling of Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus - Domestic rabbit

• Place the rabbit on a non-slip surface (e.g. a rubber mat on a table). (B601.2.w2, B602.14.w14, J72.48.w1, J213.1.w1)
• The handler grasps the scruff with one hand and places the other hand behind the rabbit's rump. (B601.2.w2)
  • Or the handler places one hand over the face and the other behind the rump. (B601.2.w2)
  • Keep mild downward pressure on the rabbit. (J15.29.w2)
  • This restraint is generally sufficient for examination of most of the rabbit (dorsum, ears, abdominal palpation etc.) and for giving subcutaneous, intramuscular, intradermal and intravenous (marginal ear vein) injections. (J15.29.w2)
• If one person has to both examine and hold the rabbit, place the rabbit facing away from the examiner, with its hindquarters at the edge of the table so the examiner's body can support it behind, preventing backward movement or kicking, while one hand presses gently down on the shoulders for restraint. (B601.2.w2)
  • The owner may be asked to stand in front of the rabbit and place one hand on each of its shoulders for further restraint while the posterior part of the rabbit is being examined. (B601.2.w2)
  • Both hands can be used to simultaneously palpate and restrain the rabbit. (B602.14.w14)
  • Or hold the rabbit sideways against your body with one arm, at the edge of the table, and use the other hand to examine the free side, then turn the rabbit around to examine the other side. (B602.14.w14)
  • Or sit on the floor with the rabbit between your legs. (J213.1.w1)
• For examination of the ventral surface, the assistant holds the rabbit in a vertical position, with one hand holding the hindlegs and pelvis against the assistant's body while the other arm is around the rabbit's body just below the forelimbs, supporting those. (B601.2.w2)
  • To increase access to the whole ventral surface, the hand supporting the hind limbs can be placed against the rabbit's lower abdomen, with the first to third fingers restraining the rabbit's hind legs extended against the handler's abdomen, while the hand supporting the cranial part of the rabbit lifts the forelegs upwards. At all times, the rabbit's back is supported against the handler's body (J15.29.w2)
  • If the examiner is also restraining the rabbit, the rabbit should be supported with one hand under the thorax, the other on the rump, and the rabbit lifted so it rests with its rump on the table, back supported by the examiner and thorax and forelegs supported in one hand. (B601.2.w2)
  • Alternatively, the rabbit may be cradled on its back in its owner's arms, or held by the scruff and placed on its back; many rabbits will become immobile when placed in dorsal recumbency. (B600.3.w3)
• Additional restraint can be provided during examination of the head, or administration of oral medication, by wrapping the rabbit in a towel: (B601.2.w2, B602.14.w14, J213.2.w2) place the rabbit on the towel so that its front feet are near the front edge in the middle of the towel and lift one side of the towel firmly up and over the rabbit, including over its forepaws, but leaving the head free. Lift the back edge of the towel up over the rabbit's rump, then wrap the other side of the towel over the rabbit as before and tuck it in ventrally on the other side of the rabbit. (B601.2.w2)
  • Or place it diagonally on the towel, and wrap, with the front corner then tucked in under the chin to ensure the front feet are restrained. (J213.2.w2)
  • One limb at a time can be freed from the towel for examination or venipuncture. (J213.2.w2)
  • For administering oral medication, the wrapped rabbit can be held between the knees on the floor, or tucked under one arm. (J213.2.w2)
• To approach a particularly aggressive or timid rabbit, a large towel can be thrown over it. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • The rabbit can be wrapped up in the towel and its head kept covered until it is placed on an appropriate surface
• A rabbit can be restrained in a cat-bag; these have zippers placed to allow access to different parts of the body. (B602.14.w14)
• A quiet, well-behaved rabbit can often be placed in lateral recumbency. Once the rabbit is on a solid surface and held by scruff and rump support, cover the rabbit's head (e.g. with a towel), position the forearm of the hand holding the scuff along the rabbit's back and gently tip the rabbit onto its side. (B601.2.w2)
  • Care should be taken not to twist the rabbit's body while moving it from ventral to lateral recumbency. (J213.2.w2)
  • If the rabbit struggles, return it to ventral recumbency. (J213.2.w2)
  • Note: most rabbits need chemical restraint for lateral recumbency. (B601.2.w2)
• To place a rabbit in dorsal recumbency (e.g. for examination of the soles of the feet), reach over the animal with one hand and cup round the rabbit's rump, while holding the scruff with the other hand. Scoop up under the rump while lifting the rabbit by the scruff, turning it over so the rabbit lies in dorsal recumbency with its back supported along the forearm of the hand holding the scruff. The hind legs and lower back can then be restrained between the handler's upper arm and body, leaving one hand free. (J15.29.w2, J72.48.w1) 
• For very nervous, aggressive or stressed individuals, examination under chemical restraint may be preferable. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • Chemical restraint may be needed for proper oral examination, collection of samples, or radiography. (B602.14.w14)
  • Induction with isoflurane in an anaesthetic chamber is safest. (J213.2.w2)
• Use of tonic immobility ("trancing"): this may be useful to allow minor non-painful procedures such as examination of the mouth, nail clipping or abdominal radiography as an alternative to the stress of firm physical restraint or the physiological stress of sedation or anaesthesia. It should be remembered that the rabbit is probably in a fearful, not relaxed, state, also that the rabbit may revert to an active state at any time. Further description and discussion is provided in Mammal Handling & Movement - Restraint, Holding and Carrying

Handling of wild lagomorphs

• Minimise physical restraint of wild (free-living) lagomorphs. (B538.59.w59)
  • Use chemical immobilisation to restrain free-living lagomorphs for examination and collection of samples. (B538.59.w59)
• In general, wild lagomorphs are best handled inside an appropriately-sized bag. The animal is kept in the bag at all times, with only the part being examined (ear, foot etc.) being exposed. (V.w123, V.w137)
• It may be useful to wrap the lagomorph in a towel for restraint. (B284.10.w10)
• If a conscious wild lagomorph becomes excessively stressed during a physical examination, return it to its cage and give it time to calm down. (J213.9.w4)
• Careful restraint is needed. It is important to remember that wild lagomorphs will either freeze or jump and flee in response to danger, and may switch from freezing to fleeing rapidly. (B284.10.w10)
• Wild rabbits and hares may scratch with the front feet and rake with the hind feet if not properly restrained. (J204.47.w1)
• "Trancing" may be effective. (B284.10.w10)
  • It should be remembered that this is a response of a prey species caught by a predator.
• See:
  • Mammal Handling & Movement - Restraint, Holding and Carrying
  • Catching and Handling of Rabbits & Hares
  • Treatment and Care - Anaesthesia and Chemical Restraint

• Juveniles (under six months) may be more difficult simply because they are very lively, so that it is more of a challenge to keep them still enough for examination. (J29.6.w1)
• An assistant may be needed when giving oral medication, or injections. (B602.2.w2)
• An assistant may be needed to insert a rectal thermometer. (B602.2.w2)
• Note: Leather gloves are not recommended: they reduce dexterity, they are difficult to disinfect, and a ferret can bite through them anyway (B602.2.w2) unless they are very thick (J15.24.w5) [which excessively reduces dexterity]. (V.w5)

Biting by ferrets

Ferrets usually do not bite. (J29.6.w1)

• Ask the owner if the ferret tends to nip or bite. (B602.2.w2)
• Juveniles may nip; ferrets handled infrequently, or a nursing female, might bite. (B602.2.w2)
• A very frightened ferret may bite an unfamiliar hand which invades its cage. (J29.6.w1)
• Certain odours on the hands might encourage biting. (J29.6.w1)
• If a ferret bites and holds on, a drop of isopropyl alcohol on its gums will make it let go. (J29.6.w1)
• Note: in some localities with rabies, even if the ferret has been properly vaccinated against rabies, it may be mandatory to euthanase the ferret and submit its head for rabies testing. In such areas it is particularly important to ensure that safe handling techniques are practiced. (J29.6.w1) In other locations, the decision to quarantine or euthanase may be dependent on the vaccination status of the ferret. (J213.2.w6)

(J29.6.w1)

Removal from the travelling cage (carrier).

• Preferably allow the ferret to walk out of its travelling cage onto the examination table, rather than reaching into the cage. (J29.6.w1)
  • If it does not want to exit the cage, tilt the cage a little to encourage it to come out. (J29.6.w1)
  • Once it emerges, it can easily be grasped around the shoulders. (B631.18.w18)
  • Do not pick the ferret up out of its carrying cage/box. (B631.18.w18)
  • If it still will not exit, place a small towel over the ferret, then grasp the ferret through the towel. (J29.6.w1)
    • Once it is out of the cage, remove the towel so you can hold the ferret more easily. (J29.6.w1)

Holding the ferret

• Ferrets have excellent hearing and sense of smell, while their visual acuity is best for close-range vision. To avoid startling a ferret, talk to it before picking it up. (J29.6.w1)
• Preferably allow the ferret to explore the examination table for a few minutes before picking it up. (J15.24.w5)
• Once the ferret is on the table, talk to it (so it knows you are there), than grasp it around the neck and shoulders with one hand. (J15.24.w5, J29.6.w1)
  • It is possible to wave a cloth in front of the ferret to distract it before grasping it with the other hand. (J15.24.w5)
• Just a light hold restraining the ferret on the table may be all that is needed with some ferrets while the head, skin and moth are examined. Then the ferret can be lifted with one hand underneath it while the abdomen is palpated and the chest auscultated. (B602.2.w2)
• Many ferrets can be held around the shoulders with one hand and will remain relaxed with the hind legs dangling. (B631.18.w18)
• Alternatively, the ferret may be scruffed, grasping as much as possible of the loose skin over the neck and shoulders. The hind end does not need to be supported, but the ferret should be kept only a short distance above the surface of the table (in case it gets loose). (B602.2.w2, J29.6.w1)
  • This is a good method for both very active ferrets and those which tend to bite. (B602.2.w2)
  • Most ferrets relax while held by the scruff. (B602.2.w2, J29.6.w1)
  • Some kits and some adult females object to this hold. (J29.6.w1)
  • To improve the ferret's relaxation, stroke downwards over the abdomen. (J29.6.w1) Ferrets can become very relaxed if stroked. (J29.8.w2)
  • Ferrets often yawn widely while scruffed, which can allow examination of the inside of the mouth (teeth etc.) and the back of the throat. (J29.6.w1)
• If the ferret is likely to bite, it can be held with one hand coming from ventrally, with the index and middle finger on either side of the neck, the thumb behind one front leg and the ring finger and little finger behind the other front leg. While this hold is maintained, most parts of the examination can be carried out. (J29.6.w1)
• Do not try to hold a ferret by grasping the neck in one hand and stretching its hind legs caudally with the other; a ferret often reacts badly to this and may injure its back while struggling. (J29.6.w1)
• It is possible to hold a ferret on the table in lateral recumbency, scruffing the ferret with one hand, placing the other just cranial to the pelvis/around the hips (not grasping the legs), and slightly stretching the body out. (B602.2.w2, J29.6.w1)
• To distract a ferret and improve relaxation, offer a treat (e.g. a fatty acid supplement, cat hairball laxative paste, a sweet nutritional supplement, Nutri-Cal or A/D) from a syringe or on the end of a tongue depressor (use of the syringe or tongue depressor avoids the risk of injury to the person offering the treat). (B602.2.w2, J29.6.w1, J29.8.w2)
• Check whether the ferret appears to be distressed, fearful, or uncomfortable (i.e. shows pain) on being handled. (B631.18.w18)
• Do not lift a ferret by the tail. (J15.24.w5)

Note: There is very little published information available on veterinary care specifically in bonobos. In general, treatment and care of bonobos is the same as treatment and care of Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee in particular and of the other great apes and other primates. Great ape treatment and health care is commonly based on the treatment for their close relatives, Homo sapiens - Humans.

Physical restraint has very limited applicability for bonobos. Positive reinforcement training can enable a wide variety of procedures in adult bonobos without the need for physical or chemical restraint, including, but not limited to: (P1.2002.w10)

• Visual examination and physical examination of parts of the body.
• Examination of the eyes, the ears and the inside of the mouth.
• Swabbing of e.g. the mouth, throat, vagina and anus.
• Examination of wounds.
• Blood sampling and intravenous injections.
• Measurement of blood pressure using an arm cuff.
• Radiography of limbs.
• Ultrasonographic examination of the heart and of any fetus.
• Urine sampling (production of a sample on request).
• Collection of ejaculate for examination.

(P1.2002.w10)

• Bonobos have been trained for cardiac ultrasound examination. For females previously trained for uterine ultrasound, this simply required them to accept the probe on the chest rather than the abdomen. Males (with more barrel-shaped chests) have to be trained to lie sternally then twist the left hip down while extending the left arm, thereby spreading the ribs. (P1.2002.w10, P129.1.w2)
• A bonobo with a severe heart condition was trained to permit electrocardiogram pads to be placed on his chest. (P129.1.w2)
• Bonobos have been trained to place an arm into a PVC "blood sleeve", six inches (15 cm) in diameter, which is attached to the front of the bonobos' holding area. This allows not only blood sampling and injections, but also tuberculin testing and blood pressure measurement using a cuff. It has been used to allow physical therapy on a bonobo's wrist and thumb, and for radiography of arms and legs without chemical restraint. (P1.2002.w10, P129.1.w2, P129.1.w3)

As for Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzees (D409.6.w6), thorough physical examination requires full sedation/anaesthesia.

• Sedation reduces the stress to the primate as well as the risk of injury to the handler, and enables a full examination to be carried out, maximising information gained from the examination. (B670.5.w5)

• Mammal Handling & Movement
• Treatment and Care - Anaesthesia and Chemical Restraint
• Wildlife Casualty Catching and Handling (with special reference to UK Wildlife) 
• Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Catching and Handling of Rabbits & Hares
• Catching and Handling of Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
• General Anaesthesia (Gaseous and Injectable) Techniques of Hedgehogs

• Changes in weight (usually weight loss) are common in sick mammals.
  • Normal weight and body condition may be seen with peracute or acute-onset illness.
  • Loss of body weight and condition may be more likely with chronic illness.
  • Increase of weight or body condition, possibly with abnormal tissue distribution, may also occur with certain diseases e.g. endocrine disease, neoplasia.
• Determination of lost weight requires knowledge of normal weight for the mammal/species, taking into account variations with age, sex, season, geographical region and whether the individual is captive or free-ranging.
• The accuracy of the measuring scales should be appropriate for the body weight of the species under examination (i.e. very accurate scales are required for weighing small mammals).
• Normal weight may vary greatly with season, particularly in hibernating mammals.
• Considerable weight loss may be seen naturally in lactating females where foraging or hunting time may be reduced or a period of fasting occurs.
• Normal weights for individuals are unlikely to be known in the majority of cases, particularly where mammals are free-ranging. 
  • However, if the mammal is captive, and can be clearly identified if group housed, comparison with a past weight may be possible (e.g. that recorded as part of a regular health check).
• A subjective scoring system should be used to assess body condition. 
  • Standard classifications should be developed to increase the ease of 'in house' comparison (e.g. emaciated, thin, moderate, obese).
  • Assessment can be made using a combination of the prominence of bones and on the basis of muscle belly palpation (e.g. thigh).
  • Recognition should be made of the expected body condition for the mammal/species, taking into account variation with age, sex, season, region and whether it is captive or free-ranging.
  • When a subjective system is used it must be remembered that data recorded may vary between examiners.

(J213.9.w4, V.w26)

• Measurement of body weight is an important part of the physical examination. 
  • Accurate digital scales are best used for measuring where available.
  • Place the hedgehog within a tall sided container during weighing to prevent its escape or accidental injury falling from the scales; subsequently subtract the weight of the container from the value recorded to determine the actual weight of the animal.
• As a general guide, adult hedgehogs weigh approximately 600-700g body weight early in the active season after they emerge from hibernation and increase to 900-1000g by autumn in preparation for the following winter. Boars may reach a slightly higher body weight than sows in the autumn of 1100-1200g. (B228.1.w1)
• (For further information See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports))
• Late born hedgehogs commonly present underweight in the autumn. They require supplementary food in situ, or care in captivity if weak or emaciated, to gain sufficient body weight and fat deposits to be able to survive hibernation.(J15.21.w1)
  • It has been suggested that juvenile hedgehogs weighing more than 600g do not need to be taken in to care for the winter. (B291.12.w12)
• Body condition can be assessed subjectively during the examination by palpating the muscle bulk in the limbs, etc.
  • Emaciated hedgehogs may have sunken eyes because they have lost the normal periorbital fat deposits.
• Marked loss of weight and body condition is seen in association with some common chronic diseases (e.g. Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs)
• Individuals with long-term weight loss may look thin and pinched at their hind end. (B337.3.w3)
• Individuals with recent weight loss may have the skin in folds, indicating that it was fatter until recently. (B337.3.w3)
• Persistent weight loss may be seen with salmonellosis.(J15.21.w1)
• Obesity can develop in captive hedgehogs, exceptionally with body weight in excess of 2kg. (B142)
  • Captive hedgehogs often have a body weight of over 50% more than their wild counterparts of a similar age.(B262.2.w2)
  • Obesity in captive hedgehogs can be associated with a number of conditions, including fatty liver.(B150.w1)

(B228.1.w1, B262.2.w2, B142, B150.w1, J15.21.w1,V.w26)

• Information on normal body weights in elephants is provided in:
  • Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant
    • See: Asian Elephant Elephas maximus - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
  • Loxodonta africana - African Elephant
    • See: African Elephant Loxodonta africana - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
  • Loxodonta cyclotis - Forest Elephant
    • See: Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
• Assessment of the elephant's body condition: 
  • The elephant should not be too thin or too heavy. 
  • Temporal depression, protrusion of ribs or scapular spines, and a sunken flank may indicate poor condition. 
  • A body scoring system for Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant has been developed. 

(B455.w1)

Several systems for estimating the body weight of elephants from body measurements are provided in: Medicating Elephants - Estimating Body Weight

• It is difficult to accurately estimate the body weight of bears, due to their thick coats. (B407.w18) 
  • Weights of bears are often overestimated when they have a thick coat, resulting in relative over-dosing with anaesthetic agents. (J59.24.w1)
• A weighing platform incorporated into a passageway or onto a shelf used by the bears is advantageous to allow regular monitoring of weight. (B407.w18)
• Bears can be trained to sit on a weighing platform. See: Mammal Handling & Movement - Husbandry Training
• In the field, bears can be hoisted in a net or tarpaulin and weighed on a 500 lb (250 kg) scale; a 100 lb (50 kg) scale should be used for bears under 100 lb (50 kg). (D249.w10)
  • Hoisting the bear by slip-loops attached to all four feet may cause less restriction of breathing than hoisting in a net. (D249.w10)
  • For bears too heavy for the scales, the bear can be hoisted slung under a long, stout pole. One end of the pole is held (e.g. on a tree limb at an appropriate height. the other end is attached to the scales then hoisted until the suspending pole is horizontal. The weight read on the scales is half the weight of the bear. (D249.w10)

Body condition

• Body condition in bears can be described as follows:
  • Poor condition: It is easy to feel the bear's hip bones, shoulder blades, spine and ribs; the bear looks unhealthy, like a skeleton with skin stretched over it;
  • Fair condition: The bear appears thin but not unhealthy; the bear's hip bones, shoulder blades, spine and ribs are easily palpable, but not prominent;
  • Good condition: The bear appears healthy but not extremely fat; it is difficult to feel the bear's hips, shoulder blades, spine and ribs;
  • Excellent condition: The bear appears extremely fat and healthy; the bones of the bear's hips, shoulder blades, spine and ribs cannot be palpated.

  (D249.w10)

• A five-point scoring system for polar bears (provided by the Polar Bear Specialist Group) is: (D251.5.w5)
  • 1: pelvis and scapulae protruding, ribs easily palpated, a deep hollow notable between the pelvis and last rib, showing virtually no fat.
  • 2: pelvis easily palpable, ribs palpable but with some muscle covering; an obvious hollow is present between the pelvis and the last rib, but this is softer than in (1).
  • 3: Body fully fleshed out, with obvious fat present over the pelvis and shoulders, the ribs are less obvious and there is no hollow between the pelvis and the last rib.
  • 4: the bear has a rounded or blocky appearance and is well fleshed over all bony areas, with obvious fat over the rump and shoulders.
  • 5: the bear's legs appear too short for the body; there are rolls of fat on the neck and lower shoulders.

  (D251.5.w5)

Weight loss may be associated with a variety of conditions.

• Body weight is reduced following hibernation; some wild bears starve in the period following emergence from hibernation. See: Starvation in Waterfowl and Seabirds (with notes on Hedgehogs and Bears).
• Weight loss was noted in a polar bear with Blastomycosis in Bears.
• Cestode Infections in Bears is sometimes associated with weight loss.
• Poor body condition can be seen in bears with heavy ascarid infection (Baylisascaris Infection in Bears).
• Poor body condition may be seen with Dental Disease in Bears.
• Weight loss may be seen associated with Hepatic and Bile Duct Neoplasia in Bears and in some other neoplasias (Neoplasia in Bears).
• Weight loss was noted in one bear with Trichinella Infection in Hedgehogs and Bears.
• Note: poor body condition and high burdens of external parasites (e.g. Lice Infection in Elephants and Bears, Tick Infection (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Elephants and Bears)) may be seen together.

Excessively high body weight may be noted in captive bears which have become obese. See: 

• Hypothyroidism in Bears
• Obesity in Bears
• Note: high body weight is expected to develop seasonally in bears prior to hibernation.

Assess body condition by palpating along the spine, over the ribs and along the limbs. (B601.2.w2, B614.14.w14)

• The following simple body condition scoring system can be used: (B601.2.w2)
  • 1. Emaciated. The ribs, lumbar vertebrae and liial wings are visible from a distance, there is no detectable body fat and there is evident loss of muscle. (B601.2.w2)
  • 2. Underweight. There is minimal fat over the ribs, which are easily palpable, the lumbar vertebrae and pelvic bones are prominent; abdominal fat is minimal. (B601.2.w2)
  • 3. Ideal weight. There is a thin covering of fat over the ribs, which are palpable. Viewed from above, the abdomen does not appear distended. (B601.2.w2)
  • 4. Overweight. A moderate fat covering over the ribs means these are not easily palpable. Viewed from above, the abdomen is obviously rounds. In the lumbar area there are obvious fat deposits. (B601.2.w2)
  • 5. Obese. A heavy covering of fat makes the ribs not palpable; there are also heavy deposits of fat over the lumbar region, the neck and the upper limbs. Viewed from above, the abdomen appears grossly distended. On palpation, there are extensive deposits of abdominal fat. (B601.2.w2)

Weight loss may indicate: (B601.App2.w20)

• Dental disease. (B602.34.w34a)
  • Acquired Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
  • Acquired Molar Abnormalities in Rabbits
  • Congenital Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
• Naturally Occurring Neoplasia in Lagomorphs
• Bullying.
• Any infectious or metabolic disease.

• Check the muscle over the forequarters and hindquarters, and the covering over the ribs and the spine. (B631.18.w18)
• There should be a thin layer of fat over the ribs; in summer the ribs should just be visible, but not in winter. (B631.18.w18)
• it should just be possible to palpate the lateral and dorsal processes of the lumbar vertebrae. (B631.18.w18, J213.2.w6)
• Many ferrets on dry diets are overweight, particularly during winter (it is normal for ferrets to lay down more body fat over the winter). (B631.18.w18)
• Seasonal weight variation is common. (J213.2.w6) Ferrets may appear thin in spring and summer when they have lost their winter fat reserves. (B631.18.w18)
  • Check the muscle condition as well as body fat to determine whether the ferret is a bit thin or is emaciated. (B631.18.w18)
  • If the ferret has normal condition except for muscle loss over the pelvis/hips, consider problems in this region. (B631.18.w18)
• Hobs (male ferrets) if entire put on muscle over the neck and forequarters in spring as their testosterone rises. (B631.18.w18)
• Males may weigh 1-2 kg and females 600 - 950 g. (J15.24.w5)

• Observation prior to handling allows a very approximate assessment of body condition. (B670.5.w5)
• Each individual primate should be weighed as part of the physical examination. (B10.44.w44f) 
• In addition to recording the weight, the body condition of the primate should be assessed and recorded. Assessment is carried out by palpating over the thorax and over the lumbar vertebrae at the level of the last rib to assess the muscle and fat over the bony prominences of the vertebrae. (B670.5.w5) A 0-5 scale can be used:
  • 0 - emaciated; no fat between skin and bone over the bony prominences. (B670.5.w5)
  • 1 - severely underweight; vertebrae are sharp and prominent, with a distinct gap between each vertebral spine; the fingers can easily pass under the ends of the vertebral processes and the lumber muscles are shallow. (B670.5.w5)
  • 2 - underweight; the vertebrae appear smooth and prominent with a gap just detectable between each vertebra; the fingers can just pass under the ends of the horizontal processes of the vertebrae and there is moderate lumbar muscle with little fat cover over these muscles. (B670.5.w5)
  • 3 - normal; the vertebrae appear slightly prominent, smooth and rounded; the horizontal processes are detectable with firm pressure and the lumbar muscles an=re deep and covered with some fat. (B670.5.w5)
  • 4 - overweight; the vertebrae can be detected with digital pressure, the horizontal processes cannot be felt even with firm digital pressure and there is thick fat covering the deep lumbar muscles. (B670.5.w5)
  • 5 - obese; the vertebrae cannot be detected by palpation, the horizontal processes cannot be felt even with firm digital pressure and there is thick fat covering the deep lumbar muscles. (B670.5.w5)

• Wildlife Casualty Catching and Handling (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)

BODY TEMPERATURE:

• Normal body temperature for mammal species varies with their body size; in general the body temperature is higher in species with a low body weight and high basal metabolic rate.
• Normal body temperature is typically lower for the metatherian (marsupial) mammals than the eutherian (placental) mammals.
• Marked variation in body temperature exists for species which can undergo periods of torpor, hibernation or aestivation.
• Mammals are typically homoeothermic.
• The body temperature will be increased in an animal which has recently been exercising, compared with an individual at rest.
• Increased body temperature may occur as a result of heat stroke (See: Sunstroke / Heatstroke), hyperthermia associated with Capture Myopathy, and fever (pyrexia) with inflammation or infection.
• Reduced body temperature, or hypothermia, can occur in seriously ill or moribund animals and under certain environmental conditions (See: Chilling - Hypothermia)
• It is important to remember that there may be significant diurnal variation in body temperature. 
• It is important to remember that body temperature is likely to be increased due to handling, because of the increased activity and stress that the procedure may involve. 
• Observation of the animal's behaviour can provide a useful guide as to whether the temperature may be increased (open-mouth breathing, flared nostrils, sweating, resting as far away from artificial heat sources as possible, resting in shade) or reduced (e.g. huddling in groups, shivering, piloerection ("hairs standing on end"), resting close to artificial heat sources). (See: Observation section on this page)
• Approximate assessment of body temperature may be made through quick palpation of the body surface (e.g. sweating, cool extremities).
• Accurate recording of body temperature is to be recommended wherever possible. 
  • Temperatures can be recorded using a mercury or digital, plastic or glass thermometer.
  • Use of a waterproof unbreakable digital thermometer may be safest and advisable particularly during conscious physical examinations. 
  • The length of the probe should be appropriate to the species in question. Every effort should be made to record core temperature, which in larger species will require a long probe length.
  • The diameter of the probe should be appropriate for the species in question.
• Rectal or cloacal temperatures are usually recorded for mammals during physical examination.
  • In some instances, other routes may be used e.g. armpit, inguinal areas.

PULSE, HEART & RESPIRATORY RATE

• Respiratory rate, character and depth are best measured with the mammal undisturbed before the physical examination begins. (See: Observation section on this page)
• Heart rate may be measured by auscultation using a stethoscope.
  • Palpation of the apex beat can be used to identify the optimal area for auscultation of the heart in unfamiliar species.
• Pulse rate may be measured by placing the fingers over an artery e.g. carotid (neck), brachial (medial or inner side of the foreleg, in the axilla/armpit), femoral (inner side of the hind leg, on the thigh), coccygeal (under the tail), facial (under the mandible).
• The pulse rate and the heart rate should be the same if the heart is functioning correctly to pump blood around the body.
• The heart/pulse rate is typically higher in smaller animals than in larger species, and can be very rapid in small mammals.
• The heart/pulse rate is likely to be elevated in conscious mammals under restraint for physical examination, due to stress.
• The quality and character of the pulse should be assessed in conjunction with the cardio-vascular system assessment (See: Chest section on this page) 
  • Abnormalities such as pulse deficits and variable quality should be noted.

(B277.1.w1, B278.1.w1, B280.1.w1, V.w26)

• Normal body temperature for hedgehogs during the active season is within the range 35 +/- 2^oC [91.4 - 98.6^oF].(B228.6.w6) 
  • For further information see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports) - Temperature
• Optimal body temperature during hibernation is believed to be approximately 4^oC (B228.6.w6, B262.8.w8, B142); 5^oC (B260.5.w5)
  • For further information see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports) - Hibernation; West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Hibernation - Aestivation (Literature Reports)
• Qualitative assessment of the body temperature of the hedgehog can be made by feeling the haired underside of the body or extremities as possible.
  • Hypothermia may be detected, particularly in late litter juveniles during adverse weather in the autumn/ early winter. (See: Chilling - Hypothermia)
• Rectal temperature can be measured providing a sufficiently small lubricated thermometer probe is available and care is taken to avoid injury.

PULSE, HEART & RESPIRATORY RATE:

• Check the heart rate and pulse of the hedgehog as necessary. Detection of a peripheral pulse may be difficult. The femoral pulse can be palpated in the inner thigh. Alternatively the chest may be carefully palpated and the heart beat detected.
• Normal heart rates of the hedgehog are fast and may be impossible to count accurately. Instead an approximate guide should be taken, as required.
• Hedgehogs heart rates are highly variable and respond quickly to disturbance during the active season or hibernation.(B228.6.w6)
• Hedgehog heart rates at normal body temperature during the active season when awake are reported to be between 200-280 beats per minute (B228.6.w6)
  • For further information see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports) - Circulatory System (Pulse / Heart Rate)
• Respiratory rates for the hedgehog are highly variable. (B228.6.w6)
• Average respiratory rates in resting hedgehogs during the active season are reported to be 25 breaths per minute, although values increase to approximately 50 breaths per minute at exercise.(B228.6.w6)
• Respiratory rates during hibernation are reduced to levels of 13 breaths per minute or less. (B228.6.w6) 
  • For further information see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports) - Respiration
• For further information on respiratory character see above - Observation and below - Chest.

(B142, B228.6.w6, B262.8.w8, B260.5.w5, V.w26)

• Normal temperature for elephants ranges from 36.0°C to 38.8°C. (B16.18.w18)
• Normal body temperature for elephants ranges from 36.0°C to 36.7°C. (B214.3.7.w3)
• Normal body temperature for elephants ranges from 35.0°C to 37.0°C. (B336.53.w53)
• The body temperature could be estimated by placing a thermometer in the center of the faecal bolus. The estimated body temperature will be 0.7°C below the faecal bolus. (B336.53.w53)
• When the body temperature is more than 39°C, it is considered fever. (B336.53.w53)
• The temperature may vary slightly with the environmental temperature and may increase with exercise and excitement. (B16.18.w18)
• Information on normal body temperature is also provided in:
  • Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant
    • See: Asian Elephant Elephas maximus - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
  • Loxodonta africana - African Elephant
    • See: African Elephant Loxodonta africana - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)
  • Loxodonta cyclotis - Forest Elephant
    • See: Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis - Appearance-Morphology- Measurement and Weight (Literature Reports)

PULSE, HEART & RESPIRATORY RATE:

• Normal elephant heart rate ranges from 34 to 46 beats per minute. (B16.18.w18)
• Normal elephant heart rate ranges from 30 to 40 beats per minute.(B214.3.7.w3)
• Normal elephant heart rate ranges from 24 to 50 beats per minute. (B336.53.w53)
• The normal heart rate in a standing elephant is 25-30 beats per minute. (B455.w1)
• The heart rate may increased by one-quarter in an awake and recumbent elephant. (B214.3.7.w3)
• The heart rate of the elephant increases up to 60 beats per minute with strenuous exercise. (B16.18.w18)
• Pulse rate can be examined behind the ear in the upper third of the base of the ear. (B214.3.7.w3)
• Pulse rate can be found when palpating the auricular artery on the caudal aspect of the ear. (B455.w1)
• Normal respiratory rate for elephants ranges from 10 to 12 respirations per minute. (B16.18.w18, B214.3.7.w3)
• Normal respiratory rate for elephants ranges from 4 to 12 respirations per minute. (B336.53.w53)
• The low respiratory rates can be observed during the sleep and the higher when the elephant is alert. (B336.53.w53)
• The only respiratory movements that can be observed are abdominal. (B214.3.7.w3)
• Information on normal heart rates and respiratory rates is also provided in:

  Elephas maximus - Asian Elephant

  • See: Asian Elephant Elephas maximus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports))

  Loxodonta africana - African Elephant

  • See: African Elephant Loxodonta africana - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports)

  Loxodonta cyclotis - Forest Elephant

  • See: Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports)

(B16.18.w18, B214.3.7.w3)

BODY TEMPERATURE:

• The normal body temperature of adult bears is 37.5 - 38.3 °C (99.6 - 101.0 °F). (B16.9.w9)
• Immobilized (anaesthetised) wild Ursus americanus - American black bear were found to start panting at a rectal temperature of 42.0 °C; one bear whose temperature reached 43 °C died while another died which had been recorded panting but whose temperature had not been recorded. (J1.25.w6)

Raised temperature has been noted with:

• Respiratory Disease in Bears
• Bacterial Gastroenteritis in Bears

PULSE, HEART & RESPIRATORY RATE:

• The normal heart rate of ursids is between 60 - 90 beats per minute (bpm). (B16.9.w9)
• Heart rates may be as low as 8 - 12 bpm during hibernation, 33 bpm during normal sleep, 46 - 60 bpm when awake but inactive, 58 - 110 bpm when sitting and 80 - 148 bpm while walking. (B16.9.w9)
• The normal respiratory rate of ursids is 15 - 30 per minute; the higher rates were recorded in hot weather. (B16.9.w9)
  • Much higher rates have been recorded hot conditions, e.g. 130-140 in two Ursus americanus - American black bear cubs resting in hot weather. (J345.2.w1)
• Pale mucous membranes and increased capillary refill time were noted with Intestinal Perforation in Bears

Respiratory rate and character:

• Heavy breathing is seen with Respiratory Disease in Bears
• Dyspnoea developed in a bear with Blastomycosis in Bears
• Occasional coughing and intermittent stertorous breathing were seen in a bear with a laryngeal neoplasm. See: Neoplasia in Bears

Take the rabbit's temperature as soon as possible in the examination, (B601.2.w2, J213.1.w1, J213.2.w2) preferably with the rabbit held vertically or on its back. (J213.2.w2)

• Body temperature can be significantly increased (above 105 °F 40.5 °C) due to stress (e.g. waiting in the same room as a dog) or after handling. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
• Normal temperature is 38.5 - 40.0 °C (101.3 - 104.0 °F). (B600.3.w3, J213.2.w2) 100 - 102 °F (37.7 to 38.8 °C) (J213.11.w2) 38 - 40 °C (101 - 104 °F). (J213.1.w1)
  • A temperature below 38.0 °C (100.4 °F) is subnormal. (B600.3.w3)
    • See: Chilling - Hypothermia (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs, Bears and Lagomorphs)
  • A temperature above 40.6 °C (105 °F) is high. (B600.3.w3)
  • A temperature over 41 C (106 F) indicates hyperthermia. (J213.1.w1)
    • See: Hyperthermia - Sunstroke - Heatstroke in Waterfowl, Elephants, Bears, and Lagomorphs

PULSE AND HEART RATE

• Normal heart rate is 130-325 bpm (B600.3.w3, J213.1.w1, J213.2.w2) 180 - 240 bpm. (J213.11.w2)
  • Usually over 200 bpm, therefore an accurate rate may be difficult to measure. (B601.2.w2)
  • Higher in smaller than in larger rabbits, e.g. 280 bpm in a 2 kg rabbit. (J213.1.w1)
• The pulse rate (femoral or central auricular artery) and heart rate should be assessed as soon as possible in the examination. (J213.2.w2)
• Heart rate may be increased due to stress. (B601.2.w2)
• Normal systolic blood pressure is 90 - 120 mm Hg. (J213.11.w2)
• A Doppler blood-flow monitor can be used to assess a faint or irregular pulse. Place over the central auricular (ear) artery, radial artery or the planar artery. (J213.1.w1)
• Indirect blood pressure measurement is possible using a cuff placed proximal to a Dopler blood-flow monitor (e.g. on the front leg). (J213.1.w1)

RESPIRATORY RATE AND CHARACTER

• Normal respiratory rate is 30 - 60 breaths per minute (J213.1.w1, J213.2.w2); 32 - 60 per minute. (B600.3.w3)
  • Respiratory rate and character are best assessed before the rabbit is handled. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • Assess by chest or nasal movements. (J213.1.w1)
• Dyspnoea may occur due to: (B600.13.w13)
  • Upper respiratory tract disease (Rhinitis in Rabbits)
  • Pasteurellosis in Lagomorphs
  • Hyperthermia / Sunstroke / Heatstroke
  • Heart disease
    • Cardiac Arrhythmia in Rabbits
    • Cardiac Valve Disease in Rabbits
    • Cardiomyopathy in Rabbits
    • Congestive Heart Failure in Rabbits
  • Traumatic injury to the chest (Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds)
  • Pleural effusion (secondary to neoplasia). (Naturally Occurring Neoplasia in Lagomorphs)
  • Internal thoracic abscess (Abscessation in Lagomorphs).
  • Viral haemorrhagic disease (Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease)

• Normal heart rate is 160-320 bpm (B232.20.w20); 180-240 bpm (J213.11.w2); 180 - 250 bpm. (J15.24.w5)
• Normal respiratory rate is 33-36 per minute. (B232.20.w20, J15.24.w5
• The body temperature should be collected early in the examination, to avoid temperature rises associated with any struggling which may occur. (B602.2.w2)
  • Note: If the ferret objects to the thermometer/rectal probe, do not try too hard to get a body temperature reading as this may stress the ferret excessively and probably will not provide very useful information. (B631.18.w18)
  • Hyperthermia needs to be treated immediately by cooling. J213.4.w7 See Hyperthermia - Sunstroke - Heatstroke in Waterfowl, Elephants, Bears, Lagomorphs and Ferrets
  • Hypothermia (Chilling - Hypothermia (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs, Bears, Lagomorphs and Ferrets)) is common in debilitated ferrets and must be treated, as well as treating the underlying condition. (J213.4.w7)
• A digital thermometer is preferable: it is non-breakable and gives a reading quickly. (B602.2.w2)
• Normal systolic blood pressure is 90-120 mm Hg).(J213.11.w2) systolic 140 +/- 35 mmHG; distolic 110 +/- 31 mmHg. (J15.24.w5)
• Normal body temperature is 100-104 °F (37.8 - 40 °C), average 101.9 °F (38.8 °C). (B232.20.w20, B602.2.w2, B631.18.w18) 39 °C. (J15.24.w5)
  • Usually it is below 103 °F in a healthy ferret unless the ambient temperature is high or the ferret is very excited. (B602.2.w2)
  • It may be a little higher in a very fearful or stressed individual. (B631.18.w18)
• In hypovolaemic shock, the temperature is usually below 98 °F (36 °C), heart rate normal or low (less than 180 bpm), pulses weak, with low blood pressure (systolic BP under 90 mm Hg; normal 90-120 mm Hg).(J213.11.w2)

• Measurement of temperature, pulse and respiration in a restrained primate is of minimal value. (B10.44.w44b)
• The respiratory rate should be noted by observation of the individual while it is resting; an increased respiratory rate may indicate respiratory disease. (B10.44.w44b)
• Normal values for Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee have been recorded as: (B538.33.w33)
  • Heart rate 60-200 bpm.
  • Respiratory rate 20-60 breaths per minute.
  • Temperature mean 36.8 °C.
  • Mean arterial blood pressure 73-213 mm Hg.
• Normal body temperature of chimpanzees: 37.2.  (B214.3.1.w18)

• Wildlife Casualty Catching and Handling (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)

General:

• Carefully examine the head and face for evidence of pain, swelling or asymmetry.
• Note the presence of any wounds (punctures, lacerations, scalping. See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds), masses (neoplasia), lesions, scars, external parasites, etc.
• Check for fractures.
• Examine the skin over the head as part of the general examination of the coat and skin over all areas of the body.
  • Flaky white thickened skin and hair loss on the face may indicate ringworm infection (fungal infection of the skin).
  • Areas of hair loss in a particular area may indicate a disease problem causing the mammal to lick or scratch at the area. This should direct the examiner to a closer inspection of the area. 
• Percussion over the sinuses (maxillary, frontal) appropriate to the mammal species can be performed for detection of fluid within the cavities. (B278.1.w1)

Eye & Periorbital Area:

• Closely examine the eyes for evidence of asymmetry in terms of eye position (strabismus), eye size, eyelid drooping (ptosis), pupil size (anisocoria), pupil shape, or local swelling.
  • Swelling around the eye can be caused by a number of problems (abscess, tumour, tissue infection (cellulitis), eye infection (panophthalmitis), dental or salivary gland disease). 
  • Abnormalities in eyelid position, eye position or pupil size will require a full neurological examination including assessment of all cranial nerves. See: Neurological System section on this page.
  • In mammals the normal shape of the iris and pupil vary with the species.
  • The eye may appear dull and sunken in dehydrated animals.
• Check for any evidence of abnormal eye movement at rest (nystagmus).
• Note whether the shape and degree of protrusion of the eyeball is similar for the two eyes. 
  • Eyeball (globe) rupture commonly occurs following concussive trauma. 
  • Eyeball prolapse (proptosis) is particularly common in small mammals e.g. hedgehogs.
• Check both eyes for evidence of cloudiness or opacity which may be due to trauma, ulcers, infection, etc.
  • Normal eyes should appear clear, shiny and moist, but without epiphora. 
  • Check for the presence of surface lesions. Corneal scratches and ulcers can be identified using fluorescein dye. 
• Note and describe any ocular discharges present and whether both eyes or a single eye is affected.
  • Matting of pelage around the eyes may indicate increased ocular discharge (epiphora) caused by irritation, trauma or infection.
• Carefully examine the sclera, eyelids (including the third or nictitating membrane) and conjunctival membranes in both eyes and note their colour and appearance.
  • Gently apply digital pressure to the eyeball over the upper eyelid to facilitate examination of the third eyelid. (B278.1.w1)
  • Increased reddening of the conjunctiva may indicate local inflammation or infection.
  • Yellow discolouration may indicate jaundice (icterus).
  • Check for the presence of parasites or foreign bodies.
  • Check for the presence of fly eggs/maggots. (See: Myiasis (Fly strike))
• Note any difference in size and in reaction to light between the pupils (direct and consensual) using a light source e.g. pen torch. (B277.1.w1)
  • Abnormalities should be investigated with a full neurological examination including assessment of all cranial nerves. (See: Neurological System section on this page)
  • Carefully assess the palpebral reflex in both eyes.
• Gently apply slight pressure to both globes to assess whether there is any mass or fluid behind the eyeballs. (J213.9.w4)
• An assessment of vision should be performed.
  • Basic menace response may be helpful.
  • Fixation and following objects may be useful.
  • Observation of behaviour and ability to navigate obstacles in a novel environment may be most useful. (See: Observation section on this page)
• Complete ophthalmic examination may be carried out.

Ear:

• Carefully examine and palpate around each ear noting any heat, discomfort or swelling present as well as checking for injuries to the external ear (e.g. bite wounds, haematoma).
• Note any abnormal odours or discharge from the ear and describe the appearance, quantity and volume (waxy, pus, brown, black, etc.)
• Look at the conformation of the ear canal and whether there are any signs of local tissue thickening which might suggest a chronic condition.
• Otoscopic examination of the ear canal and tympanic membrane should be performed where an abnormality is detected. Note: close or prolonged examination may require sedation in wild, fractious mammals or for those where the examination would be painful.
  • Otoscopic examination is particularly important for mammals showing a head tilt or ataxia.
  • Check for mite infections within the ear canal (external auditory meatus).
  • Check for polyps, neoplastic lesions, infection.
  • Check for the presence of fly eggs/maggots (fly strike). (See: Myiasis)
• Assessment of hearing should be performed.
  • Response to sound (e.g. a clap) and ability to detect the direction of the source of the sound should be used.

Nose:

• Examine the nostrils (external nares) for evidence of wounds, discharges (note whether unilateral or bilateral), masses or discolouration.
• The nares should be clean and open.
• Check the nostrils for symmetry and equal air flow and check for abnormal odours. (B278.1.w1)
• Palpate over the muzzle area checking for evidence of swelling or pain.

Mouth:

• The mouth and teeth should be examined every time a mammal is presented for physical examination. (B10.34.w41)
• Care should be taken when examining the mouth of all mammals to avoid bite wounds to the examiner. 
  • Human health and safety should be of paramount consideration.
  • Sedation or general anaesthesia may be required for detailed or prolonged examination of the mouth.
• The jaw should appear symmetrical, with teeth meeting evenly. 
  • Asymmetry or unevenness of bite may be indicative of jaw fracture or dislocation.
• Check the tongue.
• Examine the mucous membranes in the mouth, checking their colour and the capillary refill time (measure of local blood supply using the time taken for the colour to return to an area of mucous membrane after blanching with a finger). Normal capillary refill time is approximately one to two seconds. (B277.1.w1,  B278.1.w1, J213.9.w4)
  • General pallor of the mucous membranes, and increased capillary refill time, may be seen with blood loss, anaemia, shock.
  • Yellow discolouration may indicate jaundice (icterus).
• Examine the dentition noting the dental formula present and any abnormalities.
  • Look for any evidence of malocclusion of the incisors and molars. (B278.1.w1)
  • Check for dental fractures.
    • In wild animals these commonly occur following a road traffic accident;
    • In zoo animals, fractures are associated with accidents during catching; biting at hard objects in enclosures; and fighting.
      • Stereotypic chewing at bars, wire or other hard objects may weaken the teeth and predispose to fractures. (B10.34.w41)
  • Assess dental condition for signs of excessive wear/attrition. 
    • This occurs e.g. due to stereotypical chewing at bars or wire. 
  • Look for evidence of caries or periodontal disease (gingivitis, tartar).
• Check for the presence of fly eggs/maggots. (See: Myiasis (Fly strike))
• Halitosis or abnormal breath odours should be noted (e.g. sweet smelling ketones).
• Signs of excessive salivation or drooling may indicate oral pain or discomfort.
• Carefully, and without undue force, open the mouth fully allowing a brief visual inspection of the hard and soft palate and the back of the throat as possible.
• Note jaw tone, tongue movement and position.(B277.1.w1) 
  • Abnormalities should be investigated with a full neurological examination including assessment of all cranial nerves. (See: Neurological System section on this page)
  • Check below the tongue for evidence of linear foreign bodies.
• Palpate over the areas of the salivary glands noting any swellings or asymmetry present.(B280.1.w1)

Neck:

• Palpate carefully along the length of the neck for evidence of swelling, asymmetry, pain, rigidity, muscle spasm, subcutaneous emphysema, etc.(B277.1.w1)
• Palpate carefully for any generalised or localised swelling of the oesophagus.
• Note the range of movement in the neck possible e.g. flexion. (B278.1.w1)
• Palpate over the trachea and hyoid bones and along the length of the trachea, noting whether coughing or gagging occurs. (B280.1.w1, J213.9.w4)
• Check carefully for hidden injuries due to e.g. snares (see: Foreign Body Entanglement & Snaring) as well as for the presence of lacerations and puncture wounds (see: Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds).
• Examination of the jugular pulse may form part of the cardio-vascular examination, particularly in artiodactyls (See: Artiodactyla - Even toed ungulates (Order)) and perissodactyls (See: Perissodactyla - Odd-toed ungulates (Order)). (See: Chest section on this page)
• Auscultate over the trachea for detection of noises from the upper respiratory tract which must be differentiated from those of the lungs.
• Palpate the thyroid glands to determine whether there is any evidence of unilateral or bilateral enlargement, particularly if the clinical history is suggestive of a endocrine problem.(B280.1.w1)

(B10.34.w41, B277.1.w1, B278.1.w1, B280.1.w1, D93, J213.9.w4, V.w26)

• Closely examine the eyes, ears, mouth, and any wounds for evidence of fly eggs or maggots, particularly in the summer. (See: Myiasis)(B156.7.w7)
  • The presence of maggots at a particular site on the body may indicate a wound or discharge at that site. (B337.3.w3)
• The eyes should be shiny and appear slightly protruding. (B291.12.w12)
  • Injuries to the eyes leading to their prolapse (proptosis) are not uncommon in the hedgehog (e.g. road traffic accident).(B151, P8.3.w2)
  • Sunken eyes may be seen in a moribund hedgehog. (B291.12.w12)
  • Swellings (abscesses) associated with dental problems may push the eye closed on the affected side. (B337.3.w3)
• Check the jaw and hard palate for fractures and trauma which occur fairly frequently in hedgehogs, e.g. road traffic accident victims, dog bite victims.(B151, V.w26)
• Amputation wounds to the tip of the nose, and skin flap injuries, can be caused by garden strimmers. (See Garden Management for Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) - Tools and machinery)
• The hedgehog's nostrils are normally quite wet and moist.
  • A mild serous discharge may be normal. (B284.6.w6)
  • Abnormal green mucopurulent discharge may be seen in hedgehogs with Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs with a secondary bacterial infection.
  • Nose bleeds (epistaxis) can be seen in association with secondary bacterial pneumonia caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica (Bordetella (Bacteria Genera)).(J15.21.w1)
  • Abnormal nasal discharges may be collected with a sterile swab and submitted for bacteriological examination. (B291.12.w12)
• Injuries to the nose which could interfere with the ability to smell may be more important than damage to the eyes because the hedgehog relies principally on the sense of smell and hearing for food acquisition. (See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports) - Special Senses)
  • Consideration should be given as to whether release may be possible when dealing with injuries to the snout which could interfere with the sense of smell and therefore foraging success.(J15.21.w1)
• Examine the external ear canals for evidence of mite infection. (See: Notoedres Mange in Hedgehogs, Otodectes cynotis Ear Mite Infection in Hedgehogs)
• Check for evidence of crusts or scales over the ears (external pinnae) which can occur with ringworm (See: Ringworm in Hedgehogs).
• Full dental formula for the hedgehog is 3.1.3.3/2.1.2.3 (I3/2, C1/1, P3/2. M3/3).(B142)
  • The lower jaw is normally slightly shorter than the upper jaw. (B337.3.w3)
  • For further information on dental morphology see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Appearance-Morphology- Head and Neck (Literature Reports)
  • For further information on dental eruption times see: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Life Stages (Literature Reports) - Neonatal development)
• Dental problems are common in hedgehogs:
  • Carefully examine the teeth for evidence of gingivitis, tooth loss, periodontal disease, tartar accumulation. These findings may be more common in animals that have been in captivity on an artificial diet for some time but are also seen in wild hedgehogs. (See: Hedgehog Dental Disease)(B151, B22.27.w3, B150.w1, B16.13.w13, J15.21.w1, V.w26)
  • Excessive salivation, pawing at the mouth, nasal discharge and coughing may be seen associated with tooth problems. (B337.3.w3)
  • A swelling may be seen on the side of the face if an abscess forms under an infected tooth. (B337.3.w3)
• Tooth wear is not a useful indicator of age as it is affected by the abrasiveness of the diet. (B291.12.w12)
• Palpate around the neck for abnormal masses. Hedgehogs have been reported with tumours, especially around the neck.(B151) See: Neoplasia in Hedgehogs.

(B16.13.w13, B22.27.w3, B156.7.w7, B142, B151,  B150.w1, B291.12.w12, J15.21.w1,P8.3.w2, V.w26)

• Eye examination, when possible, as some elephants may resist: (B455.w1) 
  • The lachrymal gland is replaced by the Harderian gland. The lachrymal duct is vestigial, therefore tears naturally run onto the face from the corner of the eye. (B455.w1)
  • Inspect the eyes for abnormal ocular discharges, corneal scars etc. that may be suggestive of: (B455.w1)

    • Cataracts in Elephants

    • Conjunctivitis in Elephants

    • Keratitis and Corneal Ulceration in Elephants

    • Miscellaneous Eye Lesions in Elephants

    • Temporal Gland Disorder in Elephants

  • Check the conjunctival color for anemia, icterus, or cyanosis. (B455.w1)
    • Anaemia may be due to iron deficiency (Iron Deficiency Anaemia in Elephants) or secondary to other diseases such as Salmonellosis or gastro-intestinal parasitism (see: Diseases reported to affect elephants - SEARCH & List - Parasitic Diseases; Digestive System / Gastro-Intestinal Diseases)
  • The pupils are normally constricted making it difficult to check the pupillary light reflex, unless the room is darkened. (B455.w1)
• Trunk examination:
  • Examine the area on the base of the trunk that inflates and deflates for respiratory movements. This is the location where the elongated nostrils enter the skull and the air is directed into the trachea. (B455.w1)
  • Note any discharges coming out from the trunk. (B455.w1)
  • If the elephant permits its trunk to be handled, check the symmetry of the two nares. (B455.w1)
  • See:

    • Flaccid Trunk Paralysis in African Elephants Loxodonta africana

    • Trunk Paralysis (Non-Specific) in Elephants

    • Trunk Wounds in Elephants

• Oral cavity examination: 
  • Observe the tongue and mucous membranes for a normal pink colour. (B455.w1)
  • Check the capillary refill time (1-2 seconds is normal) by applying light digital pressure to the mucous membranes. Caution must be taken when placing a hand into the mouth. (B455.w1)
  • Any dental disorder may lead to inappetance and loss of condition. (B455.w1)
  • Check the molars, if possible:

    • Molar Maldevelopment and Malocclusion in Elephants

• Tusk examination:
  • The tusks should be observed closely for asymmetry of growth, discoloration or bad smell that may indicate a dental disorder such as: (B455.w1)

    • Bacterial Tusk Infection in Elephants

    • Tusk Development Problems in Elephants

    • Tusk Sulcus Infection in Elephants

    • Tusk Injury in Elephants

  • With tusk injury, externally, there may be swelling, bruising, laceration and visible wound contamination. Additional findings may include fracture of the tusk dentine, pulp injury, presence of tusk cracks, the presence of sharp fragments of tusk, black spot(s) on the tusk, deformation or displacement of the tusk, soft tissue abrasion and infection of the sulcus, with or without the presence of one or more foreign bodies. (B22.25.w11)
• Ear examination:
  • Palpate the auricular artery on the caudal aspect of the ear pinna to assess and count the pulse. (B455.w1)
  • Observe the ears for any lesions such as: (B455.w1)
    • Ear Mites in Elephants
    • Frostbite in Waterfowl (with notes on Elephants)
    • Iatrogenic Segmental Ear Gangrene in Elephants
    • Otitis Externa in Hedgehogs and Elephants
    • Wounds in Elephants
  • Examine behind the ears for Lice Infection in Elephants. (B455.w1)
• Temporal gland examination: check for swelling, excessive, purulent or foul-smelling discharge, presence of foreign bodies. See: Temporal Gland Disorder in Elephants

Facial skin & general

• Lesions of mange or ringworm may be found on the head. See:
  • Audycoptic Mange in Bears
  • Chorioptic Mange in Hedgehogs and Bears
  • Demodicosis (with special reference to Hedgehogs and Bears)
  • Ringworm in Hedgehogs (with notes on Elephants and Bears)
  • Sarcoptic Mange
• Abnormalities of the skull and facial bones have been see with cretinism, hydrocephalus and severe rickets. See:
  • Calcium-Vitamin D Metabolism Imbalance (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Elephants and Bears)
  • Cretinism in a Bear
  • Hydrocephalus in Bears
• In hibernating Ursus americanus - American black bear, dermatitis affecting the head has been seen. See: Denning-related Dermatitis in American Black Bears
• Severe, extensive, necrotic lesions on the nose, ears and paws were seen with Hypersensitivity angiitis in a Bear

Ears

• Lesions may be found on the tips of the ears associated with biting insects. See: Biting-Blood-sucking and Nuisance Flies Affecting Elephants and Bears
• Grass awns and other plant material have been found commonly in the external auditory canals of Pacific Northwest Ursus americanus - American black bear. (J417.20.w1, V.w93)

Eyes

• Various ocular lesions have been noted in bears: See: Ocular Disease in Bears
  • Ocular nematodes have been detected in bears. See: Eyeworms in Bears
  • An inactive hyperpigmented chorioretinal scar in the tapetal region of the left eye, compatible with a healed blastomycotic chorioretinal granuloma, was noted in a bear with blastomycosis (Blastomycosis in Bears)
  • Temporary unilateral corneal opacity has been seen following canine adenovirus 1 infection (Infectious Canine Hepatitis (with special reference to Bears))
  • Ocular neoplasms reported in bears include squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma of the eyelid and myxoma of the palpebral conjunctiva. (B16.9.w9, P1.2002.w5) See: Neoplasia in Bears
  • One case of a grass awn penetrating the cornea of a bear cub has been observed. (J417.20.w1, V.w93)

• The teeth should be examined carefully for lesions. See: Dental Disease in Bears
• Check the mouth of cubs for signs of candidiasis (Candidiasis in Waterfowl and Bears (with notes on Elephants))
• Check inside the mouth for foreign bodies (Oral Foreign Bodies in Hedgehogs and Bears)
• Jaundice may be noted associated with:
  • Hepatic and Bile Duct Neoplasia in Bears
  • Infectious Canine Hepatitis (with special reference to Bears)
  • Pancreatic Necrosis in Bears
• A few neoplasms have been seen associated with the oral cavity in bears. See: Neoplasia in Bears

Nose

• Check the nostrils; a leech has been seen attached to the nostril of a bear. See: Leech Infection in Bears

• Check the head carefully in casualty lagomorphs. (B284.10.w10)

• Palpate the sides of the face, and along the mandible, maxilla and zygomatic arches thoroughly for root enlargement or abscesses. Note any swellings, irregularities, asymmetry or painful foci. (B600.3.w3, B601.2.w2, J3.137.w8, J213.2.w2)
• In the normal rabbit, the ventral borders of the mandibles feel smooth and straight on palpation. (J29.16.w5)
• Swelling, asymmetry, irregularity or painful foci along the mandible or zygomatic arches suggest elongated tooth roots or abscess formation. (B600.3.w3, B601.2.w2, J3.137.w8, J72.48.w1)
• Facial swelling may indicate:
  • Myxomatosis (B601.App2.w20)
  • Abscess (including dental abscess).
    • Abscessation in Lagomorphs
    • Facial Abscesses in Rabbits
  • Cellulitis.
    • Bacterial Cellulitis in Lagomorphs
  • Neoplasia (Naturally Occurring Neoplasia in Lagomorphs).

Mouth

• Check around the mouth and chin for saliva staining, usually indicating dental disease. (B600.3.w3)
• In breeds with deep skin folds under the chin, check for moist dermatitis in the folds. (B600.3.w3)
• Gently separate the upper lips at the philtrum to see the colour of the oral membranes (pink, but paler than in cats or dogs), check capillary refill time (CRT) and assess occlusion of the incisors. (B600.3.w3, B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • Anaemia may indicate: (B601.App2.w20)
    • Renal disease.
      • Chronic Renal Failure in Lagomorphs
      • Renal Fibrosis in Rabbits
    • Chronic disease of any type.
    • Endometrial Hyperplasia - Uterine polyps in Rabbits
    • Endometrial Adenocarcinoma and other Uterine Neoplasia in Lagomorphs
    • Endometrial Venous Aneurysms in Rabbits
    • Lead Poisoning
• Note any discolouration, tooth fractures, loose teeth, abnormal tooth wear, malocclusion or infection. (B601.2.w2)
  • Normal incisors should be shiny and symmetrical, with a longitudinal groove down the centre of each of the maxillary incisors. The mandibular incisors should occlude with the peg teeth, just behind the primary maxillary incisors. 
  • Dullness and horizontal ribbing are early signs of incisor problems (poor tooth quality); later, aberrant growth is more obvious. (Th16.1.w1, J3.137.w8, J15.19.w3)
  • With mandibular prognaithism, the lower incisors may initially occlude with the primary incisors, rather than the peg teeth.
• Note whether soft tissue trauma is present in association with tooth lesions. (B601.2.w2)
• Use an otoscope to examine the cheek teeth. (J3.137.w8, J29.16.w5, J72.48.w1, J213.2.w2)
  • A large metal or plastic cone is attached to the otoscope to aid visualisation in the mouth. (B601.2.w2)
  • Metal is preferable, since the rabbit is likely to chew on the cone. (B601.2.w2)
  • Alternatively, a vaginal speculum may be used. (B600.3.w3)
• Normal incisors are short and smooth, clean and parallel to one another. (J29.16.w5, J72.48.w1)
• If the cheek teeth are normal, the lower cheek teeth should be in a straight line, and the upper teeth also in a line except for the first and last teeth which are further medially. There should be a series of upright points along the lingual edge of the teeth, formed by enamel. (J29.16.w5) 
• Look for and record any:
  • Elongation of tooth crowns.
    • Incisor overgrowth and deviation is common
      • Acquired Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
      • Congenital Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
  • Malocclusion.
    • Acquired Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Acquired Molar Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Congenital Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
  • Spikes. 
  • Loss of teeth.
  • Infection.
  • Excessive saliva.
    • Check under the mandible for wetness, erythema or dermatitis. (J72.48.w1)
  • Halitosis.
  • Food remaining in the mouth.
• Note any soft tissue trauma or haemorrhage. (B601.2.w2)
  • Oral Soft Tissue Trauma in Rabbits
• Note:
  • The presence of normal-looking incisors does not rule out abnormalities of the cheek teeth (premolars and molars). (J3.137.w8)
  • Rabbits with cheek tooth problems are more likely to object to examination of this area. (B600.3.w3)
  • Chemical restraint is required for a thorough examination of the mouth structures. (B600.3.w3, B601.2.w2, J3.137.w8, J72.48.w1)

Nose

• The nares should be equal in size. (B601.2.w2)
• Check for scabs, crusts and injuries. (J72.48.w1)
• Check for nasal discharge; note whether any discharge is unilateral or bilateral, and the type of discharge. (B600.3.w3, B601.2.w2, J72.48.w1, J213.2.w2)
• Note any sneezing or dyspnoea. (B601.2.w2)
• Increased respiratory effort, together with snuffles, whistles and squeaks may occur if the nasal passages are blocked. (B600.3.w3)
  • Some rabbits from short-nosed breeds always have noisy breathing. (B600.3.w3)
• Upper respiratory disease is common. (B600.3.w3)
• Upper respiratory tract signs occur with: (B601.App2.w20)
  • Pasteurellosis in Lagomorphs
  • Bacterial upper respiratory tract infections (e.g. Staphylococus aureus) (Rhinitis in Rabbits)
  • High levels of ammonia in the environment
  • Allergic or irritant rhinitis (Allergic Rhinitis and Bronchitis in Rabbits)
  • Myxomatosis

Eyes

• The eyes should be clean and bright, without any discharge or epiphora. (J72.48.w1)
• Check the eyelids for asymmetry, swelling, oedema, marginal irregularities, meibomian cysts, entropion, ectropion or aberrant eyelashes. (B601.2.w2, J72.48.w1)
  • Blepharoedema (swelling of the eyelids) is common with Myxomatosis; the eyes may be closed due to the swelling. (B528.14.w14)
  • Entropion and ectropion can occur (Entropion and Ectropion in Rabbits)
• Examination of the conjunctiva and nictitating membrane can be used to assess mucous membrane colour (usually paler than in cats or dogs). (J213.2.w2)
• Note the position of the eyes - sunken, exophthalmos, nystagmus. (B601.2.w2)
  • Sunken eyes are a sign of dehydration. (B601.2.w2); eyes may not be sunken in a dehydrated rabbit. (B600.3.w3)
  • Bulging of both eyes can occur due to fear (because the orbital vascular sinus is engorged). (B600.3.w3)
  • Unilateral exophthalmos suggests:
    • Retrobulbar Abscesses in Rabbits
    • Tumour (Naturally Occurring Neoplasia in Lagomorphs)
    • Cyst. (Tapeworm Cyst Infection in Lagomorphs)
• Check for ocular discharge particularly at the medial canthus; discharges may collect here. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • Note any wetness or crusting. (B601.2.w2)
  • Record if any discharge is unilateral or bilateral, and the type of discharge. (B601.2.w2)
  • Persistent epiphora can result in localised alopecia and moist dermatitis with superficial pyoderma. (B600.3.w3, J72.48.w1, J213.2.w2) (Epiphora in Rabbits)
    • Occasionally, superficial pyoderma in this area is due to tooth spurs digging into the buccal mucosa so that grooming over the area is painful. (B600.3.w3)
  • In lop-eared breeds, large ears falling over the eye can cause periocular irritation and trauma. (B600.3.w3)
• Gently lift the lower eyelid near the medial canthus to visualise the lacrimal duct opening (punctum); put gentle pressure on the face ventromedial to the eye and note any discharge from the duct. (B601.2.w2, J72.48.w1)
  • With purulent dacrocystitis (Dacrocystitis in Rabbits), pus will appear. (B600.3.w3)
  • Note: the single punctum is deeper than might be expected. (J72.48.w1)
• Watch the eyes for nystagmus. (B600.3.w3)
• Check the cornea. This should be clear. Note the location of any lesions. (B601.2.w2)
  • Fluorescein dye can be used to show corneal ulcers. (B600.3.w3) (Corneal Ulceration in Lagomorphs)
• Check the conjunctiva, sclera, nictitating membrane and iris. (B601.2.w2)
  • It is easier to examine the cornea and nictitating membrane after application of topical proxymetacaine drops to give local anaesthesia. (B600.3.w3)
• Examine the anterior chamber and lens. (B601.2.w2)
• Signs of previous lens rupture and cataracts may be associated with Encephalitozoonosis in Lagomorphs. (B600.3.w3)
• A Schirmer tear test can be carried out. (B600.3.w3)
  • In a study of 142 apparently normal rabbit eyes, this test gave an average of 5.3 +/- 2.9 mm/min, range 0 - 155 mm/min. A range of 0 - 11.2 mm/min (covering mean +/- 2 SD) was suggested as "normal (this would cover 95% of the normal population). (J13.51.w5)
  • Lack of tear production can indicate dysautonomia (Leporine dysautonomia). (B600.3.w3)
• Perform a complete ophthalmological examination if indicated by any abnormalities. (B601.2.w2)
  • Mydriasis is required for full ophthalmological examination. (B600.3.w3)
    • Tropicamide, 0.5% or 1.0% can be used, or alternatively 1% atropine (one drop) plus 10% phenylephrine - this may need to be given three or four times during a 15-minute examination. (B600.3.w3)
    • To view the optic disc, which is above the horizontal midline, look upwards in the eye. Note that the optic disc normally has a deep depression, and the retina is normally partially vascularized. (B600.3.w3)
• Note: rabbits have a diminished or absent menace response. (P113.2005.w1)

Ears

• "The ears should be clean and be without encrustations, inflammation or injury." (J72.48.w1)
• Examine the pinna for any trauma or alopecia. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
• Examine the ear canal of both ears on both sides of the tragus - the blind-ending section as well as the main section. (B601.2.w2)
  • There may be thick crusting on the inner surface of the pinna in a rabbit with Psoroptes cuniculi - Ear Mite Infection in Lagomorphs. (J213.2.w2)
• Examine the ears with an otoscope; it should be possible to see the tympanic membrane (white and translucent if healthy) easily. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • A small amount of wax is normal. (B601.2.w2) Wax is particularly common in lop-eared rabbits. (B600.3.w3)
  • Look for inflammation, exudates, masses, foreign bodies, any ectoparasites. (B601.2.w2)
    • Psoroptes cuniculi - Ear Mite Infection in Lagomorphs
    • Bacterial Otitis Media/Interna in Lagomorphs
  • It may be difficult to see all the way to the ear drum due to the length of the canal and wax or debris present. (B600.3.w3)

Neck

• Palpate the trachea and larynx for any abnormalities. (B601.2.w2)
• Auscultate over the trachea. (B601.2.w2)
• Check the skin of the ventral neck and any dewlap for wetness. (B601.2.w2)

To assess hydration status, check the moistness of the mucous membranes, and test for tenting of the skin on the neck. (B602.2.w2)

• Tenting of the skin when held and released may indicate dehydration or protein loss/deficiency. (B631.18.w18)

• If the gingiva is nicely damp and saliva is present, it is unlikely that the ferret is dehydrated. (B631.18.w18)

Look for any facial asymmetry. (B602.2.w2)

• Salivary Mucocoele in Ferrets may be observed as a unilateral swelling, usually on the cheek or in the temporal area (depending on the salivary gland involved). (B602.2.w2)

• Swellings over the cheeks may indicate abscesses. (B631.18.w18)

Check the eyes. (B602.2.w2)

• Check for orbital swelling or asymmetry. (J213.2.w6)

• The eyes should be bright open, and without discharge. (B631.18.w18, J213.2.w6)

• Note the eye colour. (B631.18.w18)

• Check for any discharge, periocular swelling, obvious ocular lesions. (B631.18.w18)

• The conjunctiva should be light pink in colour and the sclera white. (J213.2.w6)

  • Usually scleral vessels are small; some ferrets have one large vessel. (J213.2.w6)

• The cornea should be clear, glossy and smooth, without any vascularisation. (J213.2.w6)

• Conjunctivitis/ocular discharge may occur with:

  • Canine Distemper

  • Influenza in Ferrets

  • Salmonellosis

  • In neonatal ferrets with closed eyes, ocular discharge indicates Ophthalmia Neonatorum. (B232.13.w13, B631.27.w27, B631.29.w29) 

• There should be both direct and consensual light responses. These should be brisk and symmetrical. (J213.2.w6)

• Cataracts may be seen in adults and juveniles. (B602.2.w2) This is a common finding. (J29.6.w4, J29.19.w1, P120.2006.w6)

• Lens Luxation may be seen. (B530.w1, J29.6.w4)

• Abnormal pupillary dilatation may indicate Retinal Degeneration in Ferrets. (B602.2.w2, P120.2006.w6)

• Iridocyclitis has been seen with experimental Aleutian Disease in Ferrets (J29.6.w4)

• Exophthalmos may occur with:

  • Lymphoma in Ferrets (retrobulbar). (B602.39.w39)

  • Salivary Mucocoele in Ferrets (zygomatic salivary gland). (B602.39.w39)

• Note:

  • Magnification with loupes or, preferably, a slit-lamp biomicroscope is recommended in order to visualise ferret ocular lesions properly. (J29.6.w4)

  • A full ophthalmological examination may require anaesthesia. (B631.18.w18)

Check the nose for any discharge. (B602.2.w2)

• The nose should be slightly moist. It may be dry with dehydration or fever, or if the ferret has covered its nose with a paw while sleeping. (J213.2.w6)

Check the ears. (B602.2.w2)

• Look for any hair loss, excoriation or excess discharge. (B631.18.w18)

  • It should be possible to take a sample of cerumen for parasitological and cytological examination. (B631.18.w18)

  • Gentle examination using an auroscope with a small cone is tolerated by many ferrets. (B631.18.w18)

    • A videotoscope is suggested for optimum examination. (J29.19.w1)

  • Anaesthesia may be needed to allow full examination of the ears if there are signs of disease. (B631.18.w18)

• A small amount of brown waxy discharge is normal. Increased exudate (wax) suggests Otodectes cynotis Ear Mite Infection). (B602.2.w2, D404 - full text included)

  • The normal wax is brown or reddish; with ear mites it tends to become blackish and like old coffee-grounds. (J213.2.w6)

• Debris such as lint may be found in the ears if the ferret burrows in cloth or dusty environments. (J213.2.w6)

• Check particularly on the head and around the ears for ticks (Tick Infection). (J16.30.w1)
• Consider the possibility of:
  • Malassezia Infection in Ferrets or Mucormycosis in Ferrets (fungal infections associated with ear mites)
  • Mycotic otitis media and meningo-encephalitis in Ferrets  in ferrets showing head shaking and ear scratching

Check the mouth. (B602.2.w2)

• The ferret often yawns widely while being scuffed, allowing a quick examination inside the mouth. (B631.18.w18, J29.19.w1)
• The gums can be lifted gently to check the teeth and gingiva. (B631.18.w18)
• If the cheekbones are held with one hand, a fingernail can be used to gently lever the mouth open by pressing down on a mandibular canine; often the ferret will open its mouth briefly then struggle to close it, so be prepared for several short inspections. (J213.2.w6)
• Note: Full examination of the inside of the mouth may require anaesthesia (B631.18.w18), particularly in ferrets with severe periodontal/dental disease. (J29.17.w3, P120.2008.w2)
• Bruxism (tooth grinding) is often a sign of gastro-intestinal discomfort or pain. (B602.2.w2)
• The teeth should be clean. (B602.2.w2)
  • Dental tartar is common. (B602.2.w2, P120.2006.w6) See:
• The gingiva should be pink. (B602.2.w2)
  • With gingivitis the gums are red and may bleed; this commonly follows excess tartar.
  • Periodontal disease is common. (J15.24.w5, J213.2.w6)
  • See: Periodontal Disease in Rabbits and Ferrets
• Press the gingiva and assess capillary refill time. (B602.2.w2, P120.2006.w6)
• Check whether additional teeth are present (should be I 3/3, C1/1, P3/3, M1/2). (J60.11.w1)
  • Supernumerary incisors may be present; these usually do not cause a problem. (J60.11.w1)

  • Persistent Deciduous Canines in Ferrets can cause a problem and should be removed. (J60.11.w1)

• Check the canine teeth for missing tips. (B602.2.w2, P120.2006.w6)
  • Broken canine teeth are common. (J213.2.w6)
  • Just the tips broken may not be associated with further problems. (B602.2.w2)
  • If the tooth becomes dark or the ferret shows discomfort while eating, a root canal or tooth extraction is needed. (B602.2.w2)
  • See: Fractured Canines in Ferrets

• Check for any oral ulceration or oral masses. (J213.2.w6)

• Elevate the tongue by applying pressure from underneath (between the mandibles) to check for a ranula (Salivary Mucocoele in Ferrets or a foreign body (string). (J213.2.w6)

• If there are any signs of mouth problems such as pawing at the mouth (J213.4.w7), check the palate for Oral Foreign Bodies in Hedgehogs, Bears and Ferrets

• Hypersalivation / ptyalism may indicate:

  • Oral pain 

    • Dental/periodontal disease (B232.App1.w21, J213.2.w6) See:

      • Periodontal Disease in Rabbits and Ferrets

      • Fractured Canines in Ferrets

      • Dental Abscesses in Ferrets

    • Electric cord shock (Electrocution in Waterfowl, Lagomorphs and Ferrets)(J213.2.w6)

    • Oral wound or foreign body (J213.2.w6)

      • Oral Foreign Bodies in Hedgehogs, Bears and Ferrets

    • Oral mass (J213.2.w6) See Neoplasia in Ferrets

    • Nausea (J213.2.w6)

    • Reaction to oral medication or anaesthesia (J213.2.w6)

  • Botulism (Avian Botulism in Waterfowl (with notes on Hedgehogs, Elephants, Bears and Ferrets)). (B232.App1.w21)

  • Canine Distemper with special reference to Ferrets and notes on Bears  (B232.App1.w21)

  • Gastroenteritis (B232.App1.w21)

  • Gastro-intestinal Foreign Bodies in Rabbits and Ferrets (B232.App1.w21)

  • Hypoglycaemia (see Insulinoma in Ferrets))(B232.App1.w21)

• Initial examination of the head and face, including eye movement, any discharges, and any lumps or asymmetry should be made before the primate is immobilised. (B670.5.w5)
• The eyes, ears, nose and teeth of primates should all be examined. (D425.3.5.w3e)
  • Check that the eyes are straight with even-sized pupils and no discharge. (B670.5.w5)
  • Facial swelling or a draining tract on the face may suggest dental infection. (B644.10.w10)
    • Swelling or a tract below the eye, sometimes with periorbital swelling and conjunctivitis, is seen with maxillary canine tooth infection, while with infection of a mandibular canine, more generalised swelling may occur. (B644.10.w10)
  • Check the ears for any discharge and for swelling of the pinnae. (B670.5.w5)
  • Check the nostrils are even in size; look for any discharge. (B670.5.w5)
    • Note whether any discharge is unilateral or bilateral, and whether it is serous, mucoid, mucopurulent, purulent, is blood tinged or frank blood (epistaxis), and/or contains food particles. (B644.7.w7)
      • Unilateral discharge may indicate upper arcade dental disease, a nasal foreign body or tumour, parasites or mycotic infection. Bilateral presentation suggests viral or bacterial infection, environmental exposure to irritants or allergens, lower respiratory tract disease or e.g. oesophageal problems. (B644.7.w7)
  • Check for airflow through each nostril e.g. by close auscultation, use of a mirror held to each nostril in turn, or occlusion of each nostril in turn. (B644.7.w7)
  • Palpate around the jaw, throat, nasal and sinus regions for any unusual swelling. (B644.7.w7, B670.5.w5)
  • Palpate the local lymph nodes for any swelling. (B644.7.w7)
• Oral examination should include examination of the hard palate for defects or swellings, the soft palate for ventral depression indicating nasopharyngeal swelling, the oral mucosa for signs of trauma, erosions, ulcers, plaques, petechiae or larger haemorrhages, and the tonsils, teeth and peridontal areas. (B644.7.w7)
  • Do not put your fingers inside the mouth of a conscious primate. To examine inside the mouth, use a disposable tongue depressor or illuminated instrument. (B670.5.w5)
  • Note the colour of the gums and the condition of the teeth. Check the premolars and molars, and the back of the throat.  (B670.5.w5)
  • Jaundice suggests liver disease, extrahepatic biliary obstruction. or haemolysis. (B644.10.w10)
  • Oral lesions have been seen with  Candidiasis
• In Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee, use of appropriate instruments for examination of the eyes, ears and nasal passages is recommended. (D409.6.w6)

• Wildlife Casualty Catching and Handling (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)

• Note the general appearance of the coat (fur, spines, vibrissae) - e.g. condition, wet, muddy, oiled, clean, bloody, moulting. 
  • Appearance of the fur will provide a useful guide as to whether the animal is in good condition or a debilitated state.
  • If in moult, note the extent and take into account the season.
  • If contaminated, note extent and areas affected.
  • Missing patches of fur should be correlated with wounds, parasites, evidence of pruritus (itching), entanglement etc.
• Note any wounds present and characterise them in terms of age, size, location, degree of infection.
  • Matted fur (pelage) may indicate an underlying wound - this is not always directly under the matted area (B118.5.w5).
  • The distribution of skin wounds may give an indication as to their cause e.g. territorial wounds in the badger (Meles meles - Eurasian badger) are typically distributed around on the rump, neck and ears whilst conspecific bite wounds in the otter (Lutra lutra - European otter) occur around the head and genital area.
  • Careful examination for puncture wounds should be made in all mammal casualties with a history of possible cat attack.
  • Check the skin around the neck and abdomen of all animals with a history of possible release from a snare or other ligature. Injuries may appear slight at the time of presentation, but wound breakdown caused by pressure necrosis can occur in the few days following snare removal, and the animal should be kept in care during this period. (See: Foreign Body Entanglement & Snaring).
• Check for the presence of external parasites - fleas, lice, ticks, maggots etc. 
  • Note the species, numbers (accurate or approximate indication), distribution.
  • Particular attention should be paid to checking the predilection sites for external parasites e.g. armpits (axillae), groin, perineum, hoof clefts, eyes, ears etc.
  • Large numbers of parasites such as lice may be indicative of general debility. (See: Lice Infection)
  • The presence of small numbers of external parasites may be incidental.
  • When maggots are present on the surface they may also be present under the skin and deep into the animal. If fly eggs or developed maggots are found on the skin of the animal it is critically important to check all the orifices (eyes, ears, mouth, perineum) and wounds for maggots. It is particularly important to check carefully for fly eggs/maggots in the warmer months as this is when fly-strike is most likely to be seen. (See: Myiasis (Fly strike).
• Systematically part the hair over multiple areas of the body to examine the skin, looking for lesions including bite wounds, papules, macules, pustules, comedones, furuncles etc. 
• Examine all body orifices, including the anus, vulva, prepuce, cloaca, pouch as appropriate, for evidence of haemorrhage, discharge, parasites, maggots (See: Myiasis), abnormal growths etc.
• Examine the perineum and hindquarters for evidence of faecal scouring suggestive of diarrhoea (scour).
• Assess "skin tenting" as a measure of the hydration status of the mammals.
  • Gently raise a fold of skin between the thumb and forefinger and release it, noting the time that it takes to regain its normal position which is normally only a few seconds.
  • Dehydrated animals will show evidence of prolonged 'skin tenting'.
  • Experience may be required with the species in question for adequate assessment. 

(B118.5.w5, B280.1.w1, J213.9.w4, V.w26)

• The spines should be bright and shiny in a healthy hedgehog. (B337.3.w3)
• Closely examine the vulva, prepuce, perineum and any wounds for evidence of fly eggs or maggots, particularly in the summer. (See: Myiasis)(B156.7.w7)
• Check all the spines and skin for evidence of wounds whose appearance may give an indication as to their cause:
  • Broken spines or tips of spines missing indicate trauma. (B337.3.w3)
  • Clean fresh lacerations, snout amputation and limb amputations following strimmer injuries. (See: Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds)
    • Spines cut off straight across in a clump also indicate contact with a strimmer. (B337.3.w3)
  • Encircling snare-like wounds after being caught in plastic drink can trimmings or netting. (See: Foreign Body Entanglement & Snaring
    • Cut-off netting or other debris may still be present. (B337.3.w3)
  • Bite and puncture wounds and tears caused by pet dogs, often affecting the head or back. (See: Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds)
  • For information on prevention see: Garden Management for Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus)
• Examine the spines for evidence of charring or burns, particularly in the autumn or if there is a history of garden fires in the area. The spines may be fused together over large areas. (See: Burns)
• Look for presence of contaminants on the spines or fur e.g. oil. (P8.3.w2)
  • The presence of large amounts of debris and grass stuck to the spines may indicate that the hedgehog has been rolled about, for example by a dog. (B337.3.w3)
• Examine between the spines for ectoparasites, particularly ticks (See: Tick Infection) and fleas. (See: Flea Infection in Mammals))(B156.7.w7, B16.13.w13)
  • Increased numbers of ectoparasites are often seen in debilitated hedgehogs under stress e.g. climate, food availability.(B22.27.w3)
• Check for evidence of scurf, white powdery deposits, scale and hair loss around the face, muzzle, ears, belly and 'skirt' (margin between the haired and spined areas).
  • Samples for dermatophyte culture and skin scrapings for parasitological investigation may be required for diagnosis. See:
    • Caparinia Mange of Hedgehogs
    • Hedgehog Demodex Infection
    • Hedgehog Notoedres Mange
    • Ringworm in Hedgehogs 
    • Sarcoptic mange
• Spine loss, sometimes severe, may be seen associated with mite infections. (B337.3.w3)
• Spine and hair loss without associated scale or other lesions has been suggested to be caused by zinc deficiency.(B151, P8.3.w2)
• Check all over the body, particularly between the spines, for evidence of abscesses or infected pustules.(B16.13.w13, V.w26)
  • Abscesses may be seen and felt as a swelling under the skin, and may be quite firm. (B337.3.w3)
  • Clumps of spines which move together under the fingers, rather than independently, may indicate a scab or injury under those prickles. (B337.3.w3)
• Stretched, taut skin with marked subcutaneous gas accumulation may be seen in hedgehogs with a condition known as "balloon syndrome". (See: Hedgehog Balloon Syndrome)(B151, B337.3.w3, D93, P8.3.w2)
• Localised swelling due to subcutaneous gas may also be seen. (B337.3.w3)
• If the spines are pulled up they should quickly return to their former position when released. In a moribund hedgehog they may stay in the pulled up position. (B291.12.w12)
• Worn nails may indicate that the hedgehog has been trapped, for example down a drain or in a shed. (B337.3.w3)
• A sticky white substance may be found on the belly of male hedgehogs as they may ejaculate, for example when hit by a car. (B337.3.w3)

(B16.13.w13, B22.27.w3, B156.7.w7, B150.w1, B151, B291.12.w12, B337.3.w3, P8.3.w2, V.w26)

• Assess the condition of the skin.
  • "The normal healthy skin is soft and wrinkled, uniformly warm to touch, free from scurf, almost black in color and has no appearance of glaze along the side of the spine or the hip. The skin over the nails should be moist from sweat. This can be tested by applying dust which should stick." (B455.w1)
  • Note: subcutaneous abscesses may be difficult to detect since they tend to dissect laterally between the skin and the muscle rather than erupting through the thick skin. (P80.1.w1)
  • Papilloma-like/warty skin lesions may be seen particularly in young wild African elephants, associated with a herpes virus. (P80.1.w1)
  • Any abnormalities of the skin appears with:

    • Burns and Smoke Inhalation (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs and Elephants)

    • Cuticle Overgrowth in Elephants

    • Dermatitis in Elephants

    • Dermoid Cysts in Elephants

    • Elephant Foot Fly Infection

    • Epidermoid Cysts in Elephants

    • Filariasis of Elephants

    • Flea Infection in Mammals (with special reference to Hedgehogs and a note on Elephants)

    • Foot-and-Mouth Disease
      • (Note: Details of the disease in elephants are given on the page Foot and Mouth Disease - Editorial Overview of Disease Characteristics for specified SPECIES-TAXA)

    • Frostbite in Waterfowl (with notes on Elephants)

    • Hemlock (Conium maculatum) and Thorn apple (Datura stramonium) Toxicity in Elephants

    • Idiopathic Ventral Oedema in Elephants

    • Iatrogenic Segmental Ear Gangrene in Elephants

    • Herpesvirus Infection in Elephants

    • Hemorrhagic Filariasis Dermatitis of Elephants

    • Hyperkeratosis in Elephants

    • Ingrowing Nails in Elephants

    • Lice Infection in Elephants

    • Myiasis (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs and notes on Elephants)

    • Nail Abscess in Elephants

    • Nail Cracks in Elephants

    • Nail Overgrowth in Elephants

    • Neoplasia in Elephants

    • Papillomatosis (with special reference to Elephants)

    • Pododermatitis in Elephants

    • Poxvirus Infection in Elephants

    • Ringworm in Hedgehogs (with notes on Elephants)

    • Foot Wounds in Elephants

    • Sole Cracks in Elephants

    • Sole Overgrowth in Elephants

    • Skin Myiasis in Elephants

    • Stephanofilarial Dermatitis in Elephants

    • Subcutaneous Abscess in Elephants

    • Tick Infection (with special reference to Hedgehogs and Elephants)

    • Zinc Deficiency in Waterfowl (with special reference to Elephants)

    • Wounds in Elephants

• Check for wounds and infections. See: 
  • Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds (with special reference to Waterfowl, UK Wildlife and Bears) 
  • Abscess in Bears
  • Bacterial Wound Infection and Cellulitis in Bears

Skin problems including alopecia and dermatitis are common in captive bears; skin diseases were reported in 11% of bears during one multi-institutional survey. (P1.2002.w6) Many skin problems in bears appear to be multifactorial in origin. Examination of skin scrapings and/or biopsies may assist in diagnosis of skin problems. (P85.1.w2) However, in a survey, it was noted that of all cases of alopecia, pruritis or dermatitis, alone or in combination, 29% remained undiagnosed. (P1.2002.w6)

Examination of the skin and fur of bears may reveal visible external parasites, including ticks, chiggers (visible as orange specks), fleas and lice.

• Chiggers (Trombiculiasis) (In Waterfowl, Hedgehogs and Bears)
• Flea Infection in Mammals (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Bears and a note on Elephants)
• Lice Infection in Elephants and Bears
• Tick Infection (with special reference to Hedgehogs, Elephants and Bears)
• Note: the presence of large numbers of ticks or lice indicates debility. (B338.23.w23, J1.14.w9)
• Consider the possibility of Tick Toxicosis in Bears in a bear with an attached tick and general signs such as lethargy, inappetance and paresis or ataxia.

Hair loss (alopecia) and/or crusting or scaling of the skin may be seen associated with various mange mite infections. Note: detection of mites other than chiggers requires examination of deep skin scrapings and/or skin biopsies. 

• Audycoptic Mange in Bears
• Chorioptic Mange in Hedgehogs and Bears
• Demodicosis (with special reference to Hedgehogs and Bears)
• Sarcoptic Mange

Other reported causes of skin or fur disease in bears include:

• Bacterial Dermatitis in Bears
• Biting-Blood-sucking and Nuisance Flies Affecting Elephants and Bears
• Denning-related Dermatitis in American Black Bears
• Dermatophilosis in Bears
• Greening of the Hair Coat in Polar Bears
• Hypersensitivity angiitis in a Bear
• Hypothyroidism in Bears
• Inhalant Allergic Dermatitis in Bears
• Navel Infection in Bears
• Skin fibromas. See: Neoplasia in Bears
• Pityrosporum pachydermatis in a Bear
• Pythiosis in Bears (foot lesions)
• Ringworm in Hedgehogs (with notes on Elephants and Bears)
• Traumatic wounds in Bears
• Unspecified skin conditions of Bears
• Vitamin A-responsive Skin Disease in Bears

Note: in Ursus maritimus - Polar bear, survey data suggests that alopecia is most frequently related to seasonal allergies, ectoparasites, stress-related rubbing, water quality issues and imbalances in reproductive hormones, and that nutritional issues "were not documented as the primary factor." (D315.3.w3)

A rough, dry coat may also be seen in bears with gastro-intestinal parasites such as Baylisascaris Infection in Bears.

Check the length of the nails. See: Claw Overgrowth in Bears

Dehydration may be noted associated with:

• Bacterial Gastroenteritis in Bears
• Intestinal Perforation in Bears
• Oiling

• Check carefully for Myiasis in casualty lagomorphs, associated with open wounds or with Myxomatosis. (B284.10.w10)

Use skin tenting/elasticity to assess hydration status. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)

• Check the elasticity of skin in the inguinal region, scrotal skin (in males) and the inside of the pinna. (B601.2.w2)

Check the fur:

• Fur should be clean, dry, soft and dense, without any matting. (B601.2.w2)
  • Matted, soiled fur may indicate dental disease, since rabbits pull out loose hair with their incisors and clean their fur with their tongue. (J29.16.w5)
• Combing the fur will indicate how much loose fur and debris is present, and may show fleas, flea dirt, or mites. (B600.3.w3)
  • Good lighting is needed for detection of extoparasites; use of magnification may be helpful. (J72.48.w1)
  • Mites are just visible with the naked eye and can be seen easily under the microscope. (B600.3.w3)
  • Heavy external parasite burdens may indicate tooth problems preventing normal grooming. (J29.16.w5)
  • Note: matted hair, if ingested, can cause intestinal obstruction. (B600.3.w3) Felts of fur form on the bottom of the hind feet, particularly in long-haired rabbits. (B600.3.w3)
• Alopecia may be seen with: (B601.App2.w20)
  • Cheyletiellosis
  • Barbering and Excessive Grooming in Rabbits
  • Moult (normal)
  • Dermatophytosis (Ringworm)
  • Abscessation in Lagomorphs
  • Coenurus/cysticercus cyst (Tapeworm Cyst Infection in Lagomorphs)
  • Injection Reactions In Lagomorphs
• Note: it is normal for there to be thin, hairless skin over the point of the hock. (B600.3.w3)

Brush the fur backwards or part the fur in several places on the body to see the skin. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)

• Check the skin on the back, face, ventral neck and dewlap, also the perineum and the palmar feet and hocks. (B601.2.w2)
• The skin should be clean and either pink or pigmented. (J213.2.w2)
• Look for any bruising, erythema, scaling, ulceration, crusting, wetness, discolouration or unpleasant odours associated with the fur or skin. (B601.2.w2)
• Record the position, size, texture, shape and colour of any lesions such as papules, pustules, cutaneous or subcutaneous masses etc. and of any alopecia. (B601.2.w2)
• (B600.3.w3)
• Dry, flaky skin may be seen with Cheyletiellosis. (J213.2.w2)
  • This is often seen first on the back of the neck and along the rabbit's back. (B600.3.w3)
• Dermatitis may be seen with: (B601.App2.w20)
  • Ectoparasites
  • Bacterial Dermatitis in Lagomorphs
  • Blue fur disease (Pseudomonas Infection)
  • Eosinophilic granuloma
  • Dermatophytosis (Ringworm)
  • Self-trauma (Self-mutilation in Rabbits)
  • Venereal spirochaetosis (Treponematosis in Lagomorphs)
  • Urine Scalding in Rabbits
  • Pox infections
  • Herpesvirus infection
  • Myxomatosis (dermatitis on the nose)
  • Injection Reactions In Lagomorphs
• Superficial pyoderma is common under the dewlap. (B601.2.w2)
• With excessive salivation (seen in dental disease), the upper surface of the dewlap becomes wet and is susceptible to bacterial infection. (B600.3.w3)
• Saliva staining on the inside of the forepaws (used for grooming) may suggest dental disease. (B600.3.w3)
• On the feet, check for chronic abrasions and Ulcerative Pododermatitis in Lagomorphs. (B600.3.w3, B602.14.w14)

Palpate over the skin and subcutaneous tissues for abscesses. (J213.2.w2)

• A subcutaneous mass may indicate: (B601.App2.w20)
  • Abscessation in Lagomorphs
  • Lipoma
  • Naturally Occurring Neoplasia in Lagomorphs
  • Myxomatosis
  • Injection Reactions In Lagomorphs
  • Coenurus/cysticercus cyst (Tapeworm Cyst Infection in Lagomorphs)

Check the mammary area for discharges. (J72.48.w1)

Check carefully around the perineal region for caecotroph/faecal accumulation, wounds, crusting, discharges and myiasis. (J72.48.w1)

Caecotroph accumulation (Caecotroph Accumulation in Rabbits)

• Uneaten caecotophs may form a smelly mass in the fur under the tail. (B600.3.w3)
• Excess caecotrophs on the fur round the anus may be due to:
  • Obesity. (B600.3.w3, B601.App1.w19)
  • Spinal pain. (B600.3.w3, B601.App1.w19) See:
    • Spinal Injury in Lagomorphs
    • Spinal Abnormalities in Rabbits
  • Dental pain. (B600.3.w3, B601.App1.w19) See:
    • Acquired Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Acquired Molar Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Congenital Incisor Abnormalities in Rabbits
  • Reduced ingestion of caecotrophs due to overfeeding or reduced palatability (e.g. with high protein diet). (B601.App1.w19)
  • Production of excess caecotrophs due to low-fibre, high protein and carbohydrate diet. (B601.App1.w19)
• Note: Uneaten caecotrophs on the fur predispose to skin inflammation (which can lead to problems with urination), superficial pyoderma, and fly strike (Myiasis).
• Perineal accumulation of soft faeces is always significant. (B601.2.w2)
• Check carefully in any soiled fur on the perineum or base of the tail for maggots (Myiasis). (B600.3.w3)
  • NOTE: Myiasis is an emergency. (B601.2.w2)

Urine scalding

• Urine scalding is always significant. (B601.2.w2) Urine scald or incontinence may be seen with: (B601.App2.w20)
  • Cystitis (Cystitis in Elephants, Bears and Rabbits)
  • Hypercalciuria in Rabbits
  • Urolithiasis in Lagomorphs
  • Posterior paresis/paralysis
    • Spinal Injury in Lagomorphs
    • Intervertebral Disc Disease in Rabbits
    • Neoplasia affecting the spine (Naturally Occurring Neoplasia in Lagomorphs)
  • Encephalitozoonosis in Lagomorphs
  • Obesity
  • Renal failure 
    • Acute Renal Failure in Lagomorphs
    • Chronic Renal Failure in Lagomorphs
  • Hormone-responsive incontinence (in spayed females).
  • Ectopic ureter (this is rare).
  • Inability to maintain a normal urination position due to arthritis, vertebral spondylitis or sore hocks. (B600.3.w3)
    • Osteoarthritis in Lagomorphs
    • Spinal Abnormalities in Rabbits
    • Ulcerative Pododermatitis in Lagomorphs
  • Generalised weakness, neurological deficits or abdominal pain. (B600.3.w3)

Blood

• Blood staining has been seen on the fur in a rabbits with uterine polyps and endometrial hyperplasia (Endometrial Hyperplasia - Uterine Polyps in Rabbits). (J495.37.w1)

Crusting

• Crusting may indicate: (J72.48.w1)
  • Treponematosis in Lagomorphs
  • Psoroptes cuniculi Ear Mite Infection in Lagomorphs

• Fur density varies seasonally and is lowest in summer. (B631.18.w18)
• Pale-coated individuals may have their fur discoloured by newsprint off paper used for bedding. (B631.18.w18)
• Blue Ferret Syndrome may be seen in a ferret recently clipped for surgery. (B631.24.w24) 

Note any alopecia: (B602.2.w2, B631.18.w18, J213.2.w6)

• Tail-tip alopecia is common and may be transient (seasonal) or an early sign of adrenal disease (Adrenocortical Neoplasia in Ferrets). (B602.2.w2, J29.19.w1, P120.2006.w6)
  • Bilaterally symmetrical alopecia starting caudally and progressing cranially is common with adrenal disease. (B602.2.w2, P120.2006.w6)
    • Ask whether the ferret is drinking/urinating more: alopecia in combination with polyuria/polydipsia is suggestive of adrenal disease (Adrenocortical Neoplasia in Ferrets. (B631.18.w18)
    • Pruritis and comedomes (blackheads) may also be noted in ferrets with adrenal disease. (P120.2006.w6)
  • Check whether any hair loss is normal (seasonal) for the individual ferret. (J213.2.w6) For example, many entire male ferrets (hobs) lose tail fur every autumn for a month or so. (B631.18.w18) Female ferrets are more likely to lose fur during the breeding season. See Seasonal Alopecia in Ferrets

Check for signs of pruritis (scratches/excoriation). (B631.18.w18)

• Pruritis may indicate:
  • Adrenal disease (Adrenocortical Neoplasia in Ferrets).
  • Ectoparasites:
    • Flea Infection in Mammals
    • Sarcoptic Mange

Check both visually and with the fingers all through the coat for any skin masses. (B631.18.w18, J213.2.w6)

• Consider Abscessation in Lagomorphs and Ferrets 
• Neoplasia in Ferrets. Common skin tumours include mast cell tumours, sebaceous adenomas and basal cell tumours. (B602.2.w2)
  • Any masses should be removed (excisional biopsy). (B631.18.w18)
  • Note: Mast cell tumours in ferrets, unlike in dogs and cats, are benign. (B602.9.w9)
• Cuterebra (Warble) Infection in Lagomorphs (with notes on Ferrets) (Parasitic Disease)
• Hypoderma bovis (Warble) Infection in Ferrets (Parasitic Disease Summary)
• Fungal infections which have been reported causing skin lesions in ferrets (often alongside other signs) include:
  • Blastomycosis (B631.24.w24, J4.186.w1)
  • Coccidioidomycosis (B631.24.w24, J2.21.w5)
  • Cryptococcosis (B631.24.w24, J24.80.w3 )
  • Histoplasmosis (B631.24.w24, J34.17.w3)
  • Ringworm (B631.24.w24)

Part the coat and look for external parasites, scabs, crusts, papules etc. (B631.18.w18, J213.2.w6) and for puncture wounds or lacerations

• Chiggers (Trombiculiasis) (harvest mites)
• Arthropods Bites and Stings in Ferrets
• Flea Infection in Mammals
• Lynxacarcus mustelae Fur Mite Infection in Ferrets
• Sarcoptic Mange
• Snake Bite in Elephants and Ferrets
• Tick Infection
• Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds
• Myiasis

If hair appears to be broken, it should be examined microscopically to see if it has broken off or been bitten off. (B631.18.w18)

Check for petechiae or ecchymoses, particularly in shaved areas or where a needle has been inserted through the skin. (J213.2.w6)

Hydration/protein status

• If the skin tents and does not spring back into place when released, this indicates either dehydration or protein loss/deficiency. (B631.18.w18)
  • Note: In elderly ferrets and emaciated ferrets skin elasticity is decreased. (J213.2.w6)

• Examination of the skin should always form part of the clinical examination of primates. (B644.9.w9)
• Check the general condition of the fur and skin.  (B670.5.w5)
• Note any fur loss which may indicate bacterial infection, parasites, or overgrooming by the individual primate or by companions. (B670.5.w5, B644.9.w9)
• Note the presence or absence of pruritis. (B644.9.w9)
• Check for external parasites such as lice (Lice Infection in Bonobos). (D425.3.5.w3e)
• Note the presence and distribution pattern of any lesions such as vesicles or papules, pustules or ulcers. (B644.9.w9)
  • Vesicles or papules suggest early systemic infections and may develop to pustules or ulcers later. (B644.9.w9)
  • Pustules may develop in follicles without prior papule formation. (B644.9.w9)
  • Single ulcerated areas may indicate neoplasia, while multiple ulcerated nodules suggest infection. (B644.9.w9)
• Further investigations may require skin scrapings for examination and culture, biopsies for histological examination (e.g. detection of viral inclusions, types and distribution of cellular infiltration), aspiration of the contents of vesicles or pustules for cytology, blood counts for indication of systemic disease, blood culture if septicaemia is suggested, serology if a specific viral infection is suspected. (B644.9.w9)
• Pruritis (intense), alopecia and skin thickening and scaling develop with Sarcoptic Mange. (B336.39.w39, B644.3.w3)

• Wildlife Casualty Catching and Handling (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)

• Systematically check all superficial lymph nodes for evidence of enlargement or asymmetry which may indicate inflammation, infection or neoplasia.
• Check the superficial lymph nodes, in turn, progressing from head to rear. 
  • The exact nodes which are checked may depend on the mammal species under examination e.g. submandibular, prescapular, axillary, inguinal, popliteal, retropharyngeal, cervical nodes.
  • Mammary lymph nodes should be checked, particularly in lactating mammals. 

(V.w26, B278.1.w1, B280.1.w1)

• Check the submandibular, prescapular, inguinal and popliteal areas for lymph node enlargement. 

(V.w26)

• Anthrax (with special reference to Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears)
• Brucellosis (axillary lymph nodes; experimental infection)
• Elokomin Fluke Fever in Bears (mesenteric lymph nodes)
• Pythiosis in Bears (axillary and popliteal lymph nodes draining affected feet)

• Palpate for the peripheral lymph nodes in the same places as in other mammals; these are not normally palpable. (J213.2.w2)
  • The popliteal lymph node can often be palpated causal to the stifle. (B601.2.w2)
• Lymphadenopathy is rare. (J213.2.w2)
  • Enlarged lymph nodes may occur with infection or injury. (B601.2.w2)

• Become familiar with how these feel on palpation in a normal ferret. (J29.6.w1)
  • They should be soft. (B602.2.w2)
  • They are not easy to palpate when they are normal. (J213.2.w6)
• Note: In an overweight ferret, fat pads form around the lymph nodes and this can be mistaken for enlargement of the lymph nodes. (B602.2.w2, J15.24.w5, J29.6.w1, P120.2006.w6)
  • Fatty lymph nodes are usually soft; it may be possible to detect the lymph node within its fatty covering. (J213.2.w6)
• Firmness, irregularity or enlargement (asymmetry between the nodes on either side of the body) is suspicious. Consider a biopsy or a fine needle aspirate. If two or more nodes are firm/enlarged, a full diagnostic workup should be completed. (B602.2.w2, J213.2.w6, P120.2006.w6)
  • Enlargement of the lymph nodes may indicate Lymphoma in Ferrets. (J29.6.w1)
  • Lymphadenopathy was noted in ferrets with Cryptococcosis in Ferrets
  • Enlargement of a submandibular lymph node may indicate infection of the root of a canine tooth on the same side (Dental Abscesses in Ferrets). (B602.2.w2)

• Peripheral lymphadenopathy may occur in nonhuman primates with tuberculosis. (B644.2.w2, B680.w1)
• Peripheral lymphadenopathy also may occur with other diseases, including e.g. Toxoplasmosis

• Wildlife Casualty Catching and Handling (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)

• Gently palpate over all areas of the body looking for evidence of swelling, asymmetry, heat, pain, tumours, etc.
• Check the rib cage for areas of pain, deformity, fractures, subcutaneous emphysema, etc. (B277.1.w1) 
• Take great care when altering the position of mammals showing difficulties with breathing; in particular, never place these animals laying on their back.

• Palpate both sides of the chest and detect the site where the heart beat is most strong (apex beat).
  • Given knowledge of the normal anatomy for the species under examination, abnormalities in heart position and size may be detected (e.g. as a result of a space-occupying mass inside the chest).
  • Note if severe cardiac murmurs are detectable on palpation.
• Auscultation of the heart should be performed over both sides of the chest placing the stethoscope over several areas, ideally over the heart valves in turn.
• Note any irregularities in heart rate and rhythm, particularly whether they are regular or irregular in nature. (B277.1.w1)
• Note whether the heart sounds are clear and distinct as normal, muffled or split sounds. (B280.1.w1)
• Note the presence of any heart murmurs and note their radiation, stage of the cardiac cycle (diastolic or systolic), grade or describe its severity. (B277.1.w1)
• Combine examination of the chest with assessment of peripheral pulses. (See: Temperature, Pulse, Respiration section on this page) 
  • The heart should be auscultated for a brief period whilst simultaneously checking the pulse. (B277.1.w1)

Respiratory System:

• Auscultate both sides of the chest in multiple areas and listen for abnormal (adventitious) sounds e.g. wheeze, crackles.
• Auscultate over the trachea and thoracic inlet for detection of noises referred from the upper respiratory tract.(B280.1.w1)
• Systematically percuss over the lung fields to detect areas of dullness which can indicate underlying tissue consolidation (e.g. pneumonia). (B277.1.w1)
• Combine examination of the chest with observation of the respiratory rate, depth and character. (See: Observation section on this page)

(B277.1.w1, B278.1.w1, B280.1.w1, V.w26)

• Palpation of the body of the hedgehog is complicated by their spines. Since the spined skin over the hedgehogs back is very loose in the anaesthetised hedgehog, it is possible to retract the spined skin dorsally, and carefully feel over the chest, rib cage and towards the back from the underside.
• Auscultate the heart using a stethoscope checking for abnormalities of rate, rhythm or character in the beat.
• Normal heart rates of the hedgehog are fast and may be impossible to count accurately. Instead an approximate guide should be taken, as required.
• Hedgehogs heart rates are highly variable and respond quickly to disturbance during the active season or hibernation.(B228.6.w6)
• Hedgehog heart rates at normal body temperature during the active season when awake are reported to be between 200-280 beats per minute (B228.6.w6)
  • For further information See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Physiology Notes (Literature Reports) - Circulatory System (Pulse / Heart Rate)

• Percussion is not a particularly valuable technique for small mammals such as the hedgehog.
• Huffing and hissing is normal - a defensive noise. (B337.3.w3)
• Noisy respiration may indicate:
  • Upper respiratory tract injury; See: Fractures in Hedgehogs, Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds, Crushing 
  • Upper respiratory tract infection, See: Hedgehog Dental Disease, 
  • lower respiratory tract infection (e.g. lungworm, bacterial pneumonia) See: Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs, Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection in Hedgehogs, Pasteurella Infection in Hedgehogs 
    • Hedgehog casualties with severe Lungworm Infection of Hedgehogs with or without secondary bacterial pneumonia may show obvious breathing difficulties with laboured deep breathing, heaving flanks, open mouth, audible wheezing noise, green mucopurulent nasal discharge, chesty cough, possibly an outstretched neck, even gasping (J15.21.w1, B151, B291.12.w12, V.w26)
  • Smoke or fluid inhalation. See: Burns and Smoke Inhalation, Drowning 
  • Chest injury (bites or crushing) See: Fractures in Hedgehogs, Lacerations & Punctures, including bite wounds, Crushing (B337.3.w3)

(B151, B228.6.w6, B291.12.w12, V.w26)

• Examine the chest on the right side of the elephant. (B455.w1)

Cardiovascular system:

• Cardiac auscultation can be carried out in young animals. (B214.3.7.w3)
• Cardiac auscultation is difficult in adult elephants. (B455.w1)
• In a trained elephant, the handler could try to move the left forelimb forward or have the elephant lift the left forelimb, to facilitate the auscultation of the heart. (B455.w1)
• An electronic stethoscope (Littmann® electronic stethoscope model 4000, 3M Health Care, St. Paul, MN 55144, 1-800-228-3957) may be use to amplified the sound up to 18 times, and improve the heart auscultation in these animals. (B455.w1) However, interference is also magnifies and auscultation is still difficult in adults. (V.w72)
• In adult animals, examination of the heart requires electrical methods, such as ECG. (B214.3.7.w3)

Respiratory system:

• Record the character, depth and frequency of respiration by observing movements of the chest. (B455.w1)
• Respiratory sounds cannot easily be heard by thoracic auscultation. (B455.w1)
• A pulse oximeter may be used to record the oxygen saturation (normal is 96.2 ± 1.55 %). (B455.w1)
• Consider: Aspiration Pneumonia in Elephants

• Palpate the thorax for lesions which may be obscured by the fur. (D315.3.w3)
• Auscultate the thorax and in older bears evaluate the heart using ultrasonography. (D315.3.w3)
• Heavy or noisy breathing may be present with Respiratory Disease in Bears; crackles were heard on ascultation of a bear with aspiration pneumonia (Aspiration Pneumonia in Elephants and Bears)
  • Tachypnoea and dyspnoea were also present in this bear, and in other bears with trypanosomiais (Trypanosomiasis in Waterfowl, Elephants and Bears)

Observation

• Respiratory rate and rhythm (nose twitching is normal). (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • The normal respiratory rate is 32-60 breaths per minute. (B600.3.w3); 30-60 breaths per minute. (J213.2.w2)
  • Dyspnoea (seen as cyanosis, mouth breathing, depression, distress and sometimes audible respiratory noise) (B600.3.w3), as well as postural changes including sternal recumbency, elbows held slightly away from the body, extension of the neck and possibly reluctance to move (J15.27.w1) may be seen with: (B601.App2.w20)
    • Respiratory disease.
    • Cardiac disease.
    • Pregnancy Toxaemia in Lagomorphs
    • Hepatic Lipidosis in Rabbits
    • Severe pain.
  • Increased respiratory rate may indicate: (B600.3.w3)
    • Stress.
    • Pain.
    • Hyperthermia - Sunstroke - Heatstroke
    • Infection
    • Respiratory disease
    • Metabolic acidosis

• Note: rabbits are obligate nasal breathers; extending the head to allow mouth breathing, panting or open-mouth breathing are serious signs of severe respiratory distress and should be treated as an emergency. Provide a quiet, oxygen rich environment before continuing with the examination. (J15.27.w1, B601.10.w10)

Auscultation

Auscultate the heart and lungs as in other mammals. (J213.2.w2)

• Preferably use a paediatric stethoscope. (B601.2.w2, B601.10.w10)
  • A bell-ended stethescope may produce less artefactural sounds than a diaphragm-ended stethescope rubbing against the fur. (J72.48.w1)
• Auscultate over the whole thorax, covering all four quadrants. (B601.2.w2, B601.10.w10)
• Note: the rabbit's thorax is rather small. (J15.27.w1)
• Low-grade respiratory disease producing some respiratory noise is common in pet rabbits. (J72.48.w1)

Respiratory

• Respiratory rate and rhythm (nose twitching is normal). (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • The normal respiratory rate is 32-60 breaths per minute. (B600.3.w3); 30-60 breaths per minute. (J213.2.w2)
  • Dyspnoea (seen as cyanosis, mouth breathing, depression, distress and sometimes audible respiratory noise) (B600.3.w3), as well as postural changes including sternal recumbency, elbows held slightly away from the body, extension of the neck and possibly reluctance to move (J15.27.w1) may be seen with: (B601.App2.w20)
    • Respiratory disease.
    • Cardiac disease.
    • Pregnancy Toxaemia in Lagomorphs
    • Hepatic Lipidosis in Rabbits
    • Severe pain.
  • Increased respiratory rate may indicate: (B600.3.w3)
    • Stress.
    • Pain.
    • Hyperthermia - Sunstroke - Heatstroke
    • Infection
    • Respiratory disease
    • Metabolic acidosis
• There should be "short, regular and rapid" inspiratory sounds audible over all lung fields. (B601.2.w2)
  • Lung sounds are normally relatively harsh. (J213.2.w2)
  • Crackles, wheezes and quiet areas are all abnormal. (B601.2.w2, J213.2.w2)
  • Note the location and timing of any abnormalities. (B601.2.w2)
• Lower respiratory tract signs are seen with: (B601.App2.w20)
  • Bacterial pneumonia, particularly Pasteurellosis in Lagomorphs
  • Pulmonary abscess (Abscessation in Lagomorphs)
  • Rabbit Coronavirus-associated Cardiomyopathy - Pleural Effusion Disease (coronavirus infection) (this is rare)
  • Pulmonary neoplasia (particularly metastases from uterine adenocarcinoma (Endometrial Adenocarcinoma and other Uterine Neoplasia in Lagomorphs))
  • Thymoma and Thymic Lymphoma in Rabbits
  • Cardiac disease
• Note: rabbits with lower respiratory tract disease do not always have abnormal sounds or areas of reduced/absent sounds on auscultation. (B600.3.w3)

Cardiac

• Auscultate the heart on the left side and ventrally. (J213.2.w2)
• Normal heart rate is 150-300 bpm. (B601.10.w10)
• Compare heart rate and femoral pulse rate simultaneously to check for normal perfusion. (J213.2.w2)
  • The auricular pulse can be taken from the artery running up the centre of the ear (the intermediate ramus of the caudal auricular artery). (B600.3.w3)
  • The femoral pulse can be found in the middle of the femur, on the medial side. (J15.27.w1)
    • It may be less easy to find the femoral pulse than on a cat or dog. (B600.3.w3)
  • The metatarsal pulse can be found on the medial aspect of the metatarsus. (J15.27.w1)
• Murmurs and arhythmias are not common. (B600.3.w3, J213.2.w2)
  • Sinus arrhythmia is abnormal in rabbits. (B601.10.w10))
  • If a murmur is found, record its location, timing, duration, character and grade. (B601.2.w2)
  • A murmur or gallop rhythm may be the most common abnormality. (B601.10.w10)
  • Along the sternum or just to either side of this is where abnormal heart sounds are usually most intense. (B601.10.w10)
  • Note: a murmur may be mimicked by the combination of heart sounds and overlying lower airway sounds. (B601.10.w10)
  • Any murmur, gallop or other arrhythmia noted on auscultation should be investigated further for evaluation of cardiac function. Radiography, echocardiography and electrocardiography are all useful in the diagnosis of cardiac disease. (P3.2000b.w2) See: Imaging in Lagomorph Diagnosis and Treatment
• Use the gingival mucous membranes to assess capillary refill time. (B601.2.w2)
• Cardiac disease is not common in rabbits. (B600.3.w3)

• Gently palpate the chest - it should feel springy rather than solid. (B631.18.w18)
• Gently percuss the chest - it should sound air-filled not solid. (B631.18.w18)

Auscultate the heart and lungs. (B602.2.w2) A paediatric stethoscope is recommended. (B631.18.w18, P120.2006.w6)

Respiratory

• Note respiratory rate and effort. (J213.2.w6)
  • This should be characterised before the ferret is restrained. See above - Observation
• Listen for respiratory sounds over both sides and in various positions (over the various lung lobes). (B631.18.w18)
  • No obvious respiratory sounds, or just soft air sounds are heard in the normal ferret. (B631.18.w18, J15.24.w5)
    • Preferabl auscultate in a quiet environment so any abnormal sounds can be heard. (J15.24.w5)
  • Crackles and fluid sounds are abnormal. (B631.18.w18)
  • Note that sounds over the lung fields may be referred from the upper respiratory tract. (B631.18.w18)
  • The normal respiratory rate is 33-36 breaths per minute, but the rate may change once the ferret is being handled and examined. (B339.9.w9)
• Respiratory diseases include:

  • Aspiration Pneumonia in Birds, Elephants, Bears, Lagomorphs and Ferrets (Miscellaneous Disease Link)

  • Bacterial Pneumonia in Rabbits and Ferrets

  • Blastomycosis (with special reference to Bears and Snow Leopards)  

  • Coccidioidomycosis in Ferrets

  • Pseudomonas Infection in Waterfowl, Lagomorphs and Ferrets (with notes on Hedgehogs)

  • Aleutian Disease in Ferrets

  • Canine Distemper with special reference to Ferrets and notes on Bears

  • Chlamydiosis - Psittacosis (with special reference to Waterfowl and notes on Bears and Lagomorphs)

  • Heartworm Infection in Bears and Ferrets (with a note on Lagomorphs)

  • Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis in Ferrets

  • Influenza in Ferrets

  • Neoplasia:

    • Lymphoma in Ferrets

    • Thymoma (see: Neoplasia in Ferrets)

  • Pneumocystosis in Lagomorphs and Ferrets

  • Pseudomonas Infection in Waterfowl, Lagomorphs and Ferrets (with notes on Hedgehogs)

Cardiac

• The heart is positioned relatively caudally in the thorax. (B631.18.w18) between the 6th and 8th ribs (J15.24.w5) therefore auscultation must be carried out relatively caudally. (J15.24.w5)
• The heart can be auscultated with the ferret standing (lightly restrained) on the examination table. (J213.2.w6)
• Auscultate on both sides, at the apex and the base of the heart. (B631.18.w18) Murmurs may be focal. (J213.2.w6)
  • Place the stethoscope over the distal ribcage and the caudal sternum. (J29.19.w1)
• Check the pulse rate and character at the same time as listening to the heart. (B631.18.w18)
• The heart rate is fast (180-250 bpm). (B602.2.w2, J15.24.w5); 200 - 250 bpm. (B339.9.w9)
• A sinus arrhthmia is common. (B602.2.w2, J15.24.w5, P120.2006.w6)
• Describe any murmur: timing relative to the heart cycle,  acoustic characteristics. (J213.2.w6)
• Investigate murmurs or abnormal rhythm. (B602.2.w2, J15.24.w5) Murmurs may be hard to detect in excited ferrets or if the heart beat is very rapid. (B602.2.w2) Consider the possibility of:
  • Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy in Ferrets
  • Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Ferrets
  • Valvular Heart Disease
  • Heartworm Infection in Bears and Ferrets (with a note on Lagomorphs)

• The heart and lungs of primates should be auscultated. (D425.3.5.w3e)

Respiratory diseases is common in bonobos and can be severe and rapidly fatal.

• Observe the respiration. (B644.7.w7, B670.5.w5)
  • Assess the respiratory rate, rhythm and character. Simple tachypnoea may occur with excitement, anxiety, exertion or hyperthermia. Dyspnoea suggests a significant problem and may be exertational, paroxysmal (suddenly intensified or recurring) or continuous. Individuals may remain upright due to orthopnoea (dyspnoea when lying down). Tachypnoea or dyspnoea may be associated with airway restriction, lung parenchymal disease, or disease of the pleura, diaphragm or peritoneum, as well as cardiovascular disorders, anaemia, neurological and metabolic disorders (e.g. increased respiratory rate associated with compensation for metabolic acidosis). (B644.7.w7)
• Radiography is important in the assessment of respiratory disease. (B644.7.w7)
• See:
  • Neonatal Pneumonia in Great Apes
  • Respiratory Tract Disease in Bonobos

Cardiac disease is an important problem in captive great apes.

• In addition to clinical examination and radiography, ECG should be used in the assessment of cardiovascular disease. (B644.6.w6)
•  In Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee, thorough cardiac assessment is recommended including echocardiography, ECG and blood pressure evaluation. Transoesophageal echocardiography is useful particularly in obese individuals. Findings should be recorded, assisting long-term monitoring. (D409.6.w6)
• See:
  • Aortic Aneurism in Bonobos
  • Atherosclerosis in Waterfowl and Bonobos
  • Encephalomyocarditis (with special reference to Elephants and Great Apes)

• Wildlife Casualty Catching and Handling (with special reference to UK Wildlife)
• Wildlife Casualty Assessment (with special reference to UK Wildlife) - Handling for Physical Examination
• Wildlife Casualty Record Keeping (with special reference to UK Wildlife)

• Gently palpate over all areas of the body looking for evidence of swelling, asymmetry, heat, pain, tumours, etc.
• Examine the abdomen for signs of generalised distension (e.g. ascites, obesity, haemorrhage) or localised masses (e.g. peritoneal effusion, neoplasm, abscess, pregnancy).
  • In orphaned infant mammals, the abdomen may be distended due to presence of retained urine/faeces.
  • Check for evidence of umbilical or inguinal hernia.(B280.1.w1)
• Systematically percuss over the abdomen.
  • Useful for mapping of the liver margins and for detection of gas caps within the gastro-intestinal system. 
• Gently and systematically palpate the abdomen.
  • In a normal mammal the kidneys may be palpable.
  • Enlarged liver (hepatomegaly) may be palpable and is an abnormal finding.
  • Palpate the bladder and note its size.(B277.1.w1)
  • Assess whether the abdomen/gastro-intestinal system feels empty, indicating that the animal has not fed for some time, or full, indicating that it has recently eaten.
  • Palpate the area of the large bowel to assess the volume and consistency of its contents (diarrhoea, constipation). 
• Gently ballot the abdomen, checking for the presence of a 'fluid thrill' which may indicate an increased volume of free fluid.
• Auscultate the abdomen listening for evidence of normal, increased or decreased bowel sounds.(B277.1.w1) 
  • Knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the gastro-intestinal tract for the species in question is required in order to predict the normal frequency of gut sounds, particularly with ruminants.
  • For example, bowel sounds are normally heard every 30-60 seconds over the right paralumbar fossa from the ileocaecal valve in the horse (Equus caballus - Domestic horse). (B278.1.w1)
• Check all female mammals for evidence of late term pregnancy or lactation (milk expression), where consideration of the possibility of rapid release of the animal must be made to maximise the likelihood of the survival of any offspring.
• Examine the mammary glands for evidence of swelling, local heat, pain, teat discharge or neoplasia.
• Check around anus/vagina/prepuce for the presence of haemorrhage, discharge, tumours or parasites.
  • Check for fly eggs/maggots. (See: Myiasis (Fly strike)).
• Palpate the testes in mammals where they descend to a scrotal position.
  • Check for asymmetry in size, shape, consistency, etc. 
• Palpate the body of the penis and the penile bone (os penis) for evidence of swelling, pain, abnormal shape or growths, etc. 
• Rectal digital examination may be required for examination of the anal sacs, prostate gland and rectum.

(B277.1.w1, B278.1.w1, B280.1.w1, J213.9.w4, V.w26)

• Palpation of the body of the hedgehog is complicated by their spines. Since the spined skin over the hedgehogs back is very loose in the anaesthetised hedgehog, it is possible to retract the spined skin dorsally, carefully feel over the abdomen and towards the back from the underside.
• Check the abdominal wall for evidence of injury e.g. rupture or hernia, following concussive trauma.(B156.7.w7)
• It may be possible to smell an abdominal wound before it is seen; maggots may be present also (see: Myiasis). (B337.3.w3)
• The presence of a soft swelling in the abdominal area may indicate an abdominal muscle rupture with intestines of abdominal fat present in the subcutaneous space. (See: Crushing) (B337.3.w3)
• A small swelling may be seen on the abdomen, generally in hoglets or juveniles, indicating the presence of an umbilical hernia (Umbilical Hernia in Hedgehogs). (B337.3.w3)
• Percussion is not a particularly valuable technique for small mammals such as the hedgehog.
• Check around anus/vagina/prepuce for the presence of haemorrhage, discharge, tumours or parasites.
  • Check for fly eggs/maggots. (See: Myiasis (Fly strike)).
• Check all sows for evidence of late term pregnancy or lactation. Consideration should be given as to the possibility of quick release with these animals, particularly where return to the exact area where they were found may be possible within a 24 hour period.
• Check the mammary glands for evidence of abnormal masses. Hedgehogs have been reported with tumours, especially around the mammary glands.(B151)
• Palpate the intestinal tract and assess how recently it is since the animal may have eaten.
  • Emaciated and thin hedgehogs have a very empty abdomens on palpation.
• Hedgehog testes are located in the abdomen and do not descend into the scrotum.(B228.2.w2, B142)
  • (For further details See: West European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus - Detailed Anatomy Notes (Literature Reports) - Detailed Anatomy)
• The hedgehog penis is large relative to its body size. Its glans (tip) is vulnerable to injury and trauma and should be checked during the examination.(B151)
• Check for evidence of rectal prolapse which has been reported due to straining associated with Salmonellosis.(J15.21.w1)
• The abdomen and genitalia may be observed without physical restraint (e.g. for sex determination) by placing the hedgehog on a transparent surface and viewing from beneath this.

(B156.7.w7, B142, B151, B228.2.w2, B291.12.w12, V.w26)

• Examine the abdomen on both sides of the elephant. (B455.w1, V.w72)
• Observe the abdominal outline to detect any distention or ventral oedema. (B455.w1) Ventral oedema may be idiopathic or associated with a variety of diseases. See:
  • Iron Deficiency Anaemia in Elephants
  • Idiopathic Ventral Oedema in Elephants
  • Herpesvirus Infection in Elephants
  • Liver Fluke Infection in Elephants
  • Mammalian Tuberculosis (with special reference to Badgers, Hedgehogs and Elephants)
  • Renal Disease in Elephants
  • Salmonellosis (with special reference to Waterfowl, Hedgehogs and Elephants)
  • Trypanosomiasis in Elephants
• Observe the genitalia for any signs of discharge or inflammation which may be associated with disorders such as Metritis in Elephants or Priapism in Elephants, (for females and males, respectively). (B455.w1)

• Palpate the abdomen for lesions which may be obscured by the fur. (D315.3.w3)
• Increased abdominal size may indicate ascites; this has been seen associated with neoplasia. (B214.3.4.w16) See:
  • Hepatic and Bile Duct Neoplasia in Bears
  • Neoplasia in Bears
• Acute abdominal distention and tympany may indicate Acute Gastric Dilatation in Bears
• Visual examination or palpation may reveal Abdominal Hernias in Bears
• Check the naval area for localised swelling:
  • Navel Infection in Bears (in cubs)
  • Umbilical Hernia in Bears
• Check the external genitalia; reported abnormalities include:
  • Clitoriditis in Bears
  • Cryptorchidism in Bears
  • Hypospadias in a Bear
  • Pseudohermaphroditism in Bears
• In males, palpate the testes for any abnormalities in size, shape or firmness. (D315.3.w3)
  • Note: most species are seasonal breeders and undergo seasonal changes in testicular size and activity.
  • Ultrasonographic examination can be useful in reproductive assessment and may allow detection of early lesions. The testes can be scanned transcutaneously using a B-mode ultrasound scanning system with a 10 MHz linear array, and internal organs can be scanned using a 7.5 MHz curved linear probe with an adaptor. (P6.4.w6)
• In females, the reproductive tract can be evaluated by transrectal ultrasonography for detection of pregnancy and abnormalities such as cysts of the cervix uteri. (D315.3.w3, J370.51.w1, P1.2006.w1, P6.4.w6)
  • The genital tract can be scanned using a real-time B-mode ultrasound scanning system with a 7.5 MHz curved linear probe and adaptors of 15, 25 and 30 cm, appropriate for the tight rectum and elongate genital tract of bears. Following digital removal of faeces, lubricated with ultrasound gel, the probe, fitted in the adaptor, is introduced into the rectum; ultrasound gel is used in the rectum for coupling. (J370.51.w1)
  • The vagina, within the bony pelvis, is found just below the rectal wall, 60 +/- 15 mm long and 4-6 mm thick, hypoechoic with a hyperechoic central line (attached mucosal surfaces). The cervix is elongated, 60-90 mm, width 7-10 mm, between the rectal wall and the caudal portion of the urinary bladder., with the cervical portico clearly distinguishable from the vagina and the cranial border detected by the change from the typically convoluted internal structure of the cervix. The uterus may be 200 +/- 55 mm long (specis and body size dependent), with the uterine body dorsal to the cranial bladder; the position of the uterus changes depending on the degree of bladder filling. and with pregnancy. The body is 30 +/- 10 mm long, 8 +/- 2 mm diameter, with the uterine horns 170 +/- 45 mm long, in the mid abdomen, surrounded by intestinal loops. The parametrium (hyperechoic), myometrium (hypoechoic) and endometrium may be distinguished. The lumen is visible as a central irregular hyperechoic line. The ovaries are visible 240 +/- 50 mm from the anus (Melursus ursinus - Sloth bear, Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear) or at 290 +/- 60 mm (Ursus arctos - Brown bear), as spherical structures, with a mixed hypoechoic and hyperechoic stroma. Corpora lutea are found at the periphery of the ovary, homogeneously hypoechoic; regressing corpora lutea are smaller and hyperechoic compared to the stroma. In winter, visualisation may be impaired by fat deposits, but the corpora lutea are still visible. (J370.51.w1)
    • Abnormalities of the genital tract can be detected, e.g. in one three-year old Ursus arctos - Brown bear a 25 mm diameter mass, well demarcated, hyperechoic in relation to normal uterine tissue, with central blood vessels; this was suggested to be a leiomyoma. (J370.51.w1)
    • An enlarged uterus with well-defined irregular cystic anechoic structures 1-3 mm diameter was found in one pluriparous Melursus ursinus - Sloth bear. (J370.51.w1)
    • Purulent vaginitis was visualised in one subadult Tremarctos ornatus - Spectacled bear. (J370.51.w1)
    • See: Cervical Cysts in Elephants and Bears
  • Pregnancy can be detected e.g. in early December, with localised three-fold uterine enlargemeny, anechoic fetal fluid and local endometrial proliferation (implantation site); the placenta is a discoid hypoechoic structure and the fetus within the fetal fluid is hyperechoic, with head, thorax, abdomen and extremities visible at this stage; the fetus was 24 +/- 4 mm crown-rump length at this stage; the fetal heart beat can be detected. With careful searching it is possible to count the number of fetuses. (J370.51.w1)
    • Abnormalities of pregnancy can be detected, e.g. fetal structures lacking a heart beat and with free-floating fetal membranes. (J370.51.w1)
• Ultrasonography can also be used to examine other organs such as the urinary bladder, ureters and kidneys. (P6.4.w6)
  • The bladder is pear-shaped in female bears, with its wall 3-7 mm thick (depending on degree of filling). The wall is hyperechoic; in the dorsal wall it is possible to distinguish two smooth muscle layers and the mucosa (the ventral wall may be beyond the focus of the US beam). Urine may appear hypoechoic or slightly cloudy. In pregnant females it may not be possible to visualize the bladder. The urethra, just below the vagina, appears tubular, hypoechoic with a central hyperechoic line (collapsed urethral lumen). The ureters are not detectable. The kidneys are 350-450 mm from the anus, dorsolateral from the rectum. They have a lobulated structure with a hyperechoic irregular capsule about 1 mm thick. The medulla is hypoechoic, may appear heterogenous, and is subdivided by renal blood vessels. It is clearly demarcated from the echogenic, more uniform cortex; perirenal fat has a similar echogenicity to the cortex, but may contain irregular hyperechoic septae. (J370.51.w1)
• For urine collection for urinalysis, cystocentesis is preferred. It is possible, but difficult, to catheterise the urethra; this may be used if cystocentesis is not possible. It is dangerous to try to get a urine sample by capture of midstream urine. While urine can be recovered from the floor of the cage, the diagnostic usefulness of such a sample is much reduced. (B185.37.w37)
• Rectal swabbing should be carried out as a routine part of physical examination, for microbiological culture. (B185.37.w37)
• A faecal sample may be collected for parasitological examination. 
• Faeces can be used to detect pregnancy, or at least the presence of active corpora lutea, by testing for progesterone equivalents: in two pregnant Ursus arctos - Brown bear, progesterone-equivalent concentrations in faeces were 50-800 ng/g both pre-implantation (September-October) and post-implantation (November-December), compared with about 10 ng/g in the nonbreeding season February-April). (J370.51.w1)

• Palpate gently, with the hands flat on the body wall, one on each side of the rabbit. (B601.2.w2)

General

• The abdomen can be auscultated: "tinkling" suggests a gas-fluid interface. (B601.2.w2)
• A large fat pad may be palpable either side of the midline, especially in adult females. (J213.2.w2)
  • This may be very large in an obese rabbit.
• Large amounts of fat may reduce the value of abdominal palpation. (J72.48.w1)
• Note any abnormalities or irregular structures. (B601.2.w2)
• Note if one area is consistently painful; this is usually indicated by the rabbit struggling. (B601.2.w2)
• Following palpation, the abdomen can be percussed: with the rabbit held upright, limbs extended, flick gently over the abdomen. (J72.48.w1)
  • In the normal rabbit, there should be resonance over the right epigastric quadrant and dull sounds elsewhere. (J72.48.w1)
  • Increased resonance indicates gas. (J72.48.w1)
  • Reduced resonance suggests ascites. (J72.48.w1)