Erysipelothrix Infection in Birds (with special reference to Waterfowl and notes on Hedgehogs, Bears and Lagomorphs)

Disease Summary

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

• Erysipelas Infection
• Erysipelothrix
• Erysipelas
• Diamond skin disease (Pigs)

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

Infective "Taxa"

• Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

References

Disease Author

Referees

Major References/Reviews

Code and Title List

Other References

Code and Title List

Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog: J3.128.w2

Bears: B58.26.w26

Lagomorphs: B58.26.w.26, B209.28.w28d

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

General

Clinical Characteristics

• No specific signs. (B48.14.w14)
• Sudden (peracute) death may occur. (B13.33.w4, B32.14.w20, B48.14.w14)
• Acute illness may occur, with diarrhoea, depression and prostration. (B32.14.w20, B48.14.w14)
  • Lethargy, weakness, anorexia, with nonpigmented skin showing hyperaemia or bruising. (B13.33.w4)
  • Sometimes greenish droppings, dyspnoea and nasal discharge. (B13.33.w4)
  • Survivors may show signs of secondary dermatitis and arthritis (due to hypersensitivity reactions). (B13.33.w4)

• Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection (but not necessarily disease) has been reported in four species of wild lagomorphs (B209.28.w28d): See: Host species reported.

Incubation

• Unknown for natural disease. In experimental infections in turkeys, deaths mainly in 44-70 hours following subcutaneous inoculation, but two or three days later with oral inoculation, and occasionally death as long as two to three weeks after oral inoculation. (B32.14.w20)

Mortality / Morbidity

• In wild birds, usually seen affecting one or a few individuals, but large die-offs associated with this disease do occur. (B36.12.w12)
• Mortality is generally similar to morbidity: most clinically affected birds die. (B32.14.w20)
• Mortality rates vary between species. (B32.14.w20)

Pathology

Variable findings indicative of septicaemia, not pathognomonic. (B32.14.w20, B48.14.w14)

• Subcutis: petechiation.
• Muscles: petechiation.
• Intestinal mucosa: petechiation
• Liver: friable, red to black in colour.
• Spleen: friable, red to black in colour.
• (B13.33.w4)

Chronic disease (in geese, turkeys):

• Skin: thickened, leathery.
• Joints: serofibrinous arthritis.
• Cardiac: valvular endocarditis.
• (B13.33.w4)

HISTOPATHOLOGY:

Acute disease:

• Liver and spleen: degeneration, necrosis. (B13.33.w4)

Chronic disease (in geese, turkeys):

• Affected tissues show thrombi and vascular wall degeneration. (B13.33.w4)

• Generalized congestion, widespread petechiation.
• Foot web may be darkly congested;
• Spleen enlarged and mottled, congested or haemorrhagic;
• Liver enlarged, moderately congested, sometimes petechiated, sometimes pale streaks on surface;
• Heart haemorrhages;
• Breast muscles sometimes haemorrhages.

(J3.75.w1, J3.122.w1, J5.21.w1, J5.24.w1, B14, B32.14.20)

Human Health Considerations

• Easily inoculated through small abrasions. May cause wound infections, occasionally septicaemia which can be fatal (B10.26.w10, B36.12.w12, B48.14.w14, P23.1999S.w8).
• Mild dermal rash, usually on the hands; more generalised erythema and polyarthritis can occur. (P24.334.w4)
• The septicaemic form is more likely to occur in immunosuppressed individuals. (P24.334.w4)
  • In the septicaemic form, acute fever, headache, lymphangitis and meningitis may occur. (P24.334.w4)

Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

In waterfowl:

• Ducks, geese and swans (B16.19.w1).
• Domestic duck flocks (J3.75.w1, J5.24.w4).
• Domestic goose flocks (J3.122.w1).
• Wood duck Aix sponsa (J5.21.w1).
• Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler, Mergus merganser - Common merganser, Anas crecca Green-winged teal (B15, B36.12.w12).
• Canvasback Aythya valisineria (J7.10.w2)
• Black swan Cygnus atratus, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, North American wood duck Aix sponsa (B48.14.w14).

In Hedgehogs:

• Infection reported in the West European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog). (J3.128.w2)

In Bears

• Infection reported in wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear. The organism was isolated from faeces. (B58.26.w26)

In Lagomorphs:

• Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection (but not necessarily disease) has been reported in four species of wild lagomorphs (B58.26.w.26, B209.28.w28d)
  • Ochotona dauurica - Daurian pika - in the Transbaikalian region. (B58.26.w.26)
  • A Lepus spp. - in Alfort, France (B58.26.w.26)
  • Lepus europaeus - Brown hare in a hunting preserve, Hrvaska (Croatia), Yugoslavia. (B58.26.w.26)
  • Lepus timidus - Mountain hare - Sakhalin Island, Russia. (B58.26.w.26)
    • Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was isolated from the faecal droppings of this species of hare. (B58.26.w.26)
  • Reported in a hare [species not specified] in Switzerland. (B220)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Aix sponsa - Wood duck
• Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler
• Anas crecca - Common teal
• Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard
• Aythya valisineria - Canvasback
• Cygnus atratus - Black swan
• Mergus merganser - Common merganser

MAMMALS:

• Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog

LAGOMORPHS:

• Ochotona dauurica - Daurian pika
• Lepus europaeus - Brown hare
• Lepus timidus - Mountain hare

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this infectious agent)

Disease has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

In Bears

• Infection reported in wild Ursus arctos - Brown bear. The organism was isolated from faeces. (B58.26.w26)

In Lagomorphs:

• Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection (but not necessarily disease) has been reported in four species of wild lagomorphs (B58.26.w.26, B209.28.w28d)
  • Ochotona dauurica - Daurian pika - in the Transbaikalian region. (B58.26.w.26)
  • A Lepus spp. - in Alfort, France (B58.26.w.26)
  • Lepus europaeus - Brown hare in a hunting preserve, Hrvaska (Croatia), Yugoslavia. (B58.26.w.26)
  • Lepus timidus - Mountain hare - Sakhalin Island, Russia. (B58.26.w.26)
    • Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was isolated from the faecal droppings of this species of hare. (B58.26.w.26)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken). Host species with further information available are listed below:

Host Species List

• Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler
• Anas crecca - Common teal
• Mergus merganser - Common merganser

MAMMALS:

• Ursus arctos - Brown bear

LAGOMORPHS:

• Ochotona dauurica - Daurian pika
• Lepus europaeus - Brown hare
• Lepus timidus - Mountain hare

(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this infectious agent)

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

In the northern hemisphere, infections most commonly occur in late autumn (fall), winter and early spring. (B13.33.w4)

• Poor hygiene and management were implicated in one outbreak in waterfowl(J3.75.w1).
• Close contact with other species in which the disease is common (turkeys, pigs) may also be noted in flock outbreaks in waterfowl (J3.75.w1, J3.122.w1).
• Flock outbreaks may be associated with cold rainy weather (B32.14.20).

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

• Endemic in poultry in some areas, otherwise sporadic. (B32.14.w20)

In waterfowl: 

• UK, Continental Europe, USA (J3.122.w1, J5.24.w4)

In Lagomorphs:

• France 
• Yugoslavia 
• Transbaikalian region 
• Russia 

(B58.26.w.26)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• Identification of Erysipelas rhusiopathiae : slender gram-positive bacilli in smears from blood (heart blood) or tissues (e.g. liver) in combination with septicaemic lesions are suggestive.
• Culture from blood or tissues.
  • Liver and spleen should be chosen for culture if available. (B13.33.w4)
  • Bone marrow may be the best sample in severely decomposed carcasses. (B13.33.w4)
• Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae has been isolated from the faecal droppings of Lepus timidus - Mountain hare. (B58.26.w.26)

(B10.26.w10, B14, B15, B16.19.w1, B48.14.w14).

• Environmental Assessment
• History & Documentation
• Clinical Pathology of Lagomorphs
• Physical Examination of Birds - General
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Necropsy of Birds - General
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

Specific Medical Treatment

• Antibiotics: penicillin 50,000U/kg intramuscularly (B10.26.w10, B13.46.w1, B16.19.w1)
• Vaccination with bacterin (B16.19.w1).

• Treatment and Care - General

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

• Treatment and Care - General

Preventative Measures

• Adjuvanted bacterins have been used for control of outbreaks in flocks. (B13.33.w4)
  • This vaccination may cause sensitisation and potentiate chronic disease in the vaccinated birds. (B13.33.w4)

WATERFOWL

• Treatment and Care - General
• Preventative Medicine for Birds - General

Environmental and Population Control Measures

• Isolate newly arrived individuals for at least 30 days. (B48.14.w14)
• Observe birds regularly for any signs indicating illness. (B48.14.w14)

• Preventative Medicine for Birds - General
• Environmental and Population Management - General
• Chapter 4 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Disease Control Operations