|
|
Disease Author |
Debra Bourne MA
VetMB PhD MRCVS (V.w5);
Nikki Fox BVSc MRCVS (V.w103);
Gracia Vila-Garcia DVM, MSc,
MRCVS (V.w67)
|
 |
Major References /
Reviews
|
Code and Title List |
B11.34.w2,
B11.36.w4,
B11.40.w8,
B12.55.w1, B15,
B36.11.w11, B37.x.w1,
B47
P4.1992.w1
J1.31.w7, J1.31.w8,
J1.32.w3
J3.76.w1
J5.27.w6, J5.27.w7
J6.4.w1, J6.14.w2, J6.5.w1, J6.15.w4, J6.16.w3, J6.17.w4, J6.17.w5, J6.22.w4
J21.25.w1
Hedgehogs:
Elephants:
Lagomorphs:
|
Other References
|
Code and Title List |
-- |
Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics
|
General |
Mycoplasma
spp. may be associated with arthritis, mastitis, respiratory disease,
conjunctivitis and septicaemia. (B47) |
| WATERFOWL |
May be associated with
respiratory signs and less frequently general and nervous signs in juveniles, decreased
fertility, embryo mortality and lesions of the reproductive tract in adults. |
| HEDGEHOGS |
- Two Mycoplasma strains were isolated from the
throat and faeces of one of 15 wild hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog
) from Dunedin, New Zealand. There was no indication of clinical
disease associated with the infection and the possible role of
mycoplasmas in respiratory or other disease of the hedgehog is unknown.
(J21.12.w4)
|
| ELEPHANTS |
-
Mycoplasma infection has been found in captive elephants with
acute to chronic and progressive rheumatoid type arthritis. (B10.49.w21,
J2.11.w1)
- Mycoplasma infection has also been reported to cause
respiratory disease in elephants in the past. (B10.49.w21,
B64.27.w4)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
- Two strains of Mycoplasma pulmonis were recovered from
the upper respiratory tract of New Zealand white rabbits but they were not associated
with clinical disease. (B614.8.w8,
J538.93.w1)
- Mycoplasma pulmonis has been isolated from the respiratory
tract of rabbits with upper respiratory tract disease. (B602.17.w17)
|
Clinical
Characteristics
|
WATERFOWL |
General:
- Frequently isolated from clinically-normal individuals.
- Tenosynovitis with gross swelling of joints and tendons, lameness, anaemia, pallor,
breast blisters and respiratory signs may all occur with Mycoplasma synoviae (B11.36.w4, B37.x.w1).
Infection in juveniles:
- Respiratory signs are most commonly reported: nasal discharge, sneezing,
lacrimation,
conjunctivitis (reddened conjunctiva), sometimes respiratory distress. Sinusitis (usually
swelling of infraorbital sinus), head-shaking.
- Other signs have included: decreased mobility, difficulty in moving, increased sitting,
leg weakness, decreased appetite and drinking, weight loss, weakness, occasionally
diarrhoea, occasionally nervous signs (tremor,
torticollis, ataxia, leg
paralysis), and
reduced growth. (J6.4.w1,
J6.14.w2, J6.5.w1, J6.17.w5, J6.22.w4, P4.1992.w1,
B11.34.w2,
B11.40.w8, B37.x.w1).
- Experimental infection (air-sac inoculation) with Mycoplasma gallisepticum and
with Mycoplasma anatis failed to produce clinical signs in day-old Pekin ducklings,
although some growth retardation was noted, particularly with Mycoplasma anatis (J21.25.w1)
Infection in adults:
- Inflammation of cloaca and phallus, weight loss, decreased egg
production, decreased fertility, embryonic death and reduced hatchability; also reduced
weight of newly-hatched goslings/ducklings (J1.31.w7, J6.4.w1,
J6.14.w2, J6.15.w4, J6.17.w5, B36.11.w11).
|
| HEDGEHOGS |
--
|
| ELEPHANTS |
"It is possible that Mycoplasma
arthritis in elephants is similar to that observed in swine, in which
there is an acute episode consisting of fever, lameness, and joint
swelling followed by recovery in most cases, although some animals become
infected chronically." (B10.49.w21)
- Mycoplasma sp. has been isolated from the genital tract of a
clinically normal female elephant. (J2.26.w3)
Locomotor system signs:
- Seasonal (worse with cold weather) and migratory lameness. (J2.11.w1,
P1.1981.w2)
- Acute lameness. (B10.49.w21,
J2.11.w1)
- Swollen and warm joints. (J2.11.w1)
- Failure to support normal weight. (J2.11.w1,
P1.1981.w2)
General signs:
- Weakness, lethargy and depression. (J2.11.w1,
P1.1981.w2)
- Decreased appetite. (J2.11.w1)
- Weight loss or failure to gain weight. (J2.11.w1)
- Behavioural changes. (J2.11.w1)
Clinical pathology:
- Rise in mycoplasma antibody titre, particularly after a "flare
up" of lameness. (J2.11.w1)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
- Upper respiratory tract disease has been noted in rabbits from which
Mycoplasma pulmonis has been isolated. (B602.17.w17)
- An ascending mycoplasmal
upper respiratory tract infection may result in a secondary otitis media /
interna. (B603.1.w1)
|
Incubation |
WATERFOWL |
-- |
| HEDGEHOGS |
-- |
| ELEPHANTS |
-- |
| LAGOMORPHS |
-- |
Mortality / Morbidity |
WATERFOWL |
High morbidity, low
mortality for sinusitis in ducklings (J3.76.w1, P4.1992.w1,
B11.40.w8). Mortality of 7-30% reported for goslings with generalized infection (J6.4.w1).
Morbidity 15-25%, mortality 3-8% in 3-4 week old goslings with respiratory and nervous
signs (J6.22.w4). |
| HEDGEHOGS |
-- |
| ELEPHANTS |
- Lameness was noted in about 30% of 67 elephants studied for
mycoplasma infections. (J2.11.w1)
- Mycoplasma spp. could be isolated from 25 - 85% of elephants
from different groups. (J2.11.w1)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
--
|
Pathology |
WATERFOWL |
In general, there is a
sero-fibrinous cell-mediated inflammatory response. A wide range of pathology may be seen
due to secondary bacterial infection. Lesions vary associated with the age of birds
affected and with the clinical signs reported. Gross Pathology:
- Sinusitis - clear (usually) mucus filling and distending infraorbital sinuses.
May become caseous.
- Nares - may be excess mucus.
- Air-sacculitis - thickening of air sac walls (cloudy, oedematous), variable
fibrinous exudate.
- Lungs - congestion,
oedema, pneumonia (goslings)
- Trachea - excess serous mucus
- Serosal surfaces: fibrinous peritonitis,
perihepatitis, pericarditis
- Reproductive - salpingitis in females, serofibrinous inflammation of glandular
part of phallus, lymph sinus mucous membrane and some times cloaca and peritoneum in
males.
- Spleen - splenomegaly (goslings)
- Umbilicus - omphalitis.
- Gastro-intestinal tract - may be empty in juveniles with severe clinical signs
(J3.76.w1,
J6.4.w1, J6.5.w1, J6.14.w2, J6.15.w4, J6.22.w4, J21.25.w1,
B11.34.w2, B18,
B37.x.w1)
Histopathology:
- Respiratory and associated membranes - mononuclear cell infiltration of lung
interstitium, walls of parabronchi and alveoli, walls of major bronchi, nasal conchae
mucous membranes and visceral pleura. Thickening of serous membranes and catarrhal
inflammation (infiltrate of lymphocytes, lymphoblasts, histiocytes, few plasma cells) in
walls of airsacs, pericardium, pleura; sometimes also fibrin infiltration.
- Central nervous system - Infiltration in cerebral membranes and cerebral chambers
(goslings with nervous signs). (J6.16.w3, J6.22.w4).
Embryo Pathology:
- Chorioallantoic membrane - acute serous inflammation.
- Liver - diffuse interstitial hepatitis
- Lungs - bronchopneumonia
- (J6.16.w3).
|
| HEDGEHOGS |
--
|
| ELEPHANTS |
Histopathology:
- Joints: Degenerative polyarthritis. (J2.11.w1)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
--
|
Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity
in:
|
Disease
has been recorded in association with:
- Acholeplasma laidlawii in goslings with respiratory signs and
deaths, Acholeplasma axanthum in laying geese associated with decreased
hatchability (also Mycoplasma gallinarum isolated from goose cell cultures) (J6.4.w1).
- Natural and experimental infection in domestic geese in France (J6.14.w2)
- Associated with inflammation of the cloaca and phallus of geese, in
Hungary (J6.15.w4).
- Associated with respiratory and nervous disease in goslings in Hungary (J6.22.w4).
- Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae in
goslings with nervous signs and leg paralysis, in geese, and from goose embryos, in
Yugoslavia (J6.17.w5).
- In combination with avian influenza A virus infection in domestic
ducklings in the UK (J3.76.w1).
- Air sacculitis, sometimes tracheal or nasal mucus and some growth
retardation but no overt clinical signs following experimental air-sac inoculation of Mycoplasma
anatis or Mycoplasma gallisepticum in day-old domestic ducklings Anas
platyrhynchos domesticus (J21.25.w1).
Infection has also reported in association with:
- Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae, Mycoplasma cloacale
and Mycoplasma anatis in domestic ducks in Yugoslavia; Mycoplasma gallisepticum
and Mycoplasma synoviae were also cultured from embryonated eggs (J6.17.w4).
- Mycoplasma gallisepticum from clinically normal geese (J6.15.w5).
- Mycoplasma anatis isolated from wild mallards, American black duck and Gadwall; Mycoplasma
cloacale from mallard Anas platyrhynchos, canvasback Aythya valisineria,
American black duck Anas rubripes, other Mycoplasma spp. from mallard,
American black duck, canvasback; including evidence of vertical transmission (isolation in
day-old ducklings). N.B. Tracheitis, oesophagitis and vaginitis were observed in
three ducks and may have been associated with infection (USA)(J1.31.w8).
- Serological evidence of exposure in mallard Anas platyrhynchos and American black
ducks Anas rubripes, USA (J1.32.w3).
- Wild Northern shovelers Anas clypeata in Spain (Mycoplasma anatis) (J6.19.w2)
- Mycoplasma anatis, Mycoplasma cloacale, Mycoplasma lipofaciens, Acholeplasma
laidlawii, Acholeplasma axanthum and unidentified Mycoplasmas from ducks; Mycoplasma
anatis, Mycoplasma iners and Acholeplasma laidlawii from geese, in Yugoslavia (J6.16.w4).
- Mycoplasma anatis isolated from respiratory tract and/or cloaca of Pekin ducks Anas
platyrhynchos domesticus, common teal Anas crecca and greater scaup Aythya
marila (B74).
- Acholeplasma axanthum, Acholeplasma laidlawii, Mycoplasma anatis, Mycoplasma bovis,
Mycoplasma cloacale, Mycoplasma gallinaceum, Mycoplasma gallinarum, Mycoplasma
gallisepticum, Mycoplasma lipifaciens, Mycoplasma synoviae, and unidentified
organisms reported as being isolated from domestic ducks (B15).
In Hedgehogs:
In Elephants:
- A study of 67 captive elephants (62 Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephants and five Loxodonta africana
- African Elephants), ranging in age from five to 51 years,
revealed the clinical significance of Mycoplasma infection and
association with rheumatoid arthritis. One or more strains of Mycoplasma
were cultured in 28 of 35 female genital tracts. Sera from the 67
elephants were tested for Mycoplasma complement fixing (MCF)
antibodies to human, domestic animals and elephant isolates. More than
half of the animals had antibodies to one or more elephant isolates.
Some of the elephants showed antibodies to Mycoplasma pneumoniae,
Mycoplasma orale, Mycoplasma salivarium and Acholeplasma laidlawi.
(J2.11.w1)
- An Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant was diagnosed with rheumatoid
arthritis in Zurich zoo, based on the clinical signs. (P7.1.w8)
- In a female elephant, acute Mycoplasma arthritis was
probable, since acute onset lameness was accompanied by a rising Mycoplasma
antibody titre. (B10.49.w21)
In Lagomorphs
- Two strains of Mycoplasma pulmonis were recovered from
the upper respiratory tract of New Zealand white rabbits; there was no
associated clinical disease (some infected rabbits had "snuffles,
others appeared healthy). (B614.8.w8,
J538.93.w1)
- Mycoplasma pulmonis has been isolated from the respiratory
tract of rabbits with upper respiratory tract disease. (B602.17.w17)
Further information on Host species has only
been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and
Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature
review has been undertaken). Host species with further information
available are listed below:
|
Host Species List |
BIRDS:
MAMMALS:
(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this
infectious agent)
|
General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis
|
| WATERFOWL |
- Clinical signs, post mortem examination findings, Giemsa-stained
impression smears: intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies, culture and isolation of the
organism.
- Mycoplasmas may be isolated from infertile eggs, dead embryos, air sacs,
oviduct, peritoneum. (J6.14.w2)
- Difficult to grow from clinical specimens, as they are fastidious, have
intimate dependence on the host species which they colonize and grow slowly on artificial
media . Inoculation of selective media with swabs from e.g. inner eyelids, sinuses, and
trachea of suspected sinus/respiratory disease. If shipping to a laboratory, send rapidly,
chilled. (B36.11.w11)
N.B. frequently other, secondary, pathogens are also isolated, e.g. Staphylococci,
Streptococci, Escherichia coli.
(J6.14.w2,
B11.36.w4, B36.11.w11,
B37.x.w1) |
| HEDGEHOGS |
-- |
| ELEPHANTS |
- Clinical signs and post mortem examination findings. (J2.11.w1)
- Immunoglobulin levels with rise rheumatoid factor activity and/or Mycoplasma
antibodies. (J2.11.w1)
- Serology for mycoplasma complement fixing (MCF) antibodies is
considered of limited diagnostic value on its own. (B450.19.w19,
J2.11.w1)
- Rise in antibody titre to Mycoplasma on paired serum samples.
(B10.49.w21)
- In a case of sudden severe lameness in a female elephant, the
antibody titre against Mycoplasma rose significantly from
the first day to day eight. (B10.49.w21)
- Immune complex (IC) levels measurement was found not to be sensitive
for the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis in elephants. (P1.1981.w2)
- Inoculation of selective media with swabs of the genital tract for
culture and identification. (J2.11.w1)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
The organism was isolated from the oropharynx, cultured, examined by
electron microscopy and subjected to antigenic testing. (J538.93.w1)
|
| Related Techniques |
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