|
|
Disease Author |
Debra Bourne MA
VetMB PhD MRCVS (V.w5);
Nikki Fox BVSc MRCVS (V.w103);
Gracia Vila-Garcia DVM, MSc,
MRCVS (V.w67)
|
 |
Referees |
William Lewis BVSc CertZooMed MRCVS (V.w129);
Brigitte Reusch BVet Med (Hons) CertZooMed MRCVS (V.w127) |
Major References /
Reviews
|
Code and Title List |
B9.6.w1, B10.26.w10, B11.39.w7, B11.40.w8, B13.46.w1, B14, B15, B16.19.w1, B18,
B32.3.w25,
B36.9.w9, B37.x.w1, B47, B48.7.w7, B101,
B336.65.w65
J2.19.w2
J3.65.w1, J3.70.w3, J3.96.w1, J3.97.w4,
J3.115.w3, J3.128.w2,
J3.136.w2
J4.100.w1, J4.129.w1,
J4.163.w2, J4.185.w1
J5.5.w2, J5.6.w2
J6.10.w3
J7.13.w1
J35.123.w1, J35.132.w1
J25.4.w1
P1.1985.w3,
P30.1.w5
P23.1999S.w3,
P23.1999S.w8
D48
Hedgehogs:
Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog:
Elephants:
Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant:
Loxodonta africana
- African Elephant:
Bears:
Lagomorphs:
- B209.28.w28i,
B600.3.w3, B600.10.w10,
B600.16.w16, B601.8.w8,
B601.9.w9, B601.10.w10,
B602.16.w16, B603.1.w1,
B603.2.w2, B603.3.w3
Bonobos/Great apes/Primates:
|
Other References
|
Code and Title List |
J1.100.w1
J5.10.w1
J35.123.w1
J36.41.w1
Hedgehogs:
Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog:
Elephants:
Loxodonta africana
- African Elephant:
Lagomorphs:
P17.24.w1
Bonobos:
B338.18.w18
|
Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics
|
General |
Birds
- Acute septicaemic to chronic, localised or subclinical disease. Usually
seen as an intestinal infection with enteritis, diarrhoea and terminal septicaemia and
death. Also as a commensal. (B48.7.w7)
Mammals
- May cause diarrhoea in juveniles and more rarely adults, and death from acute enteritis
without time for the development of diarrhoea in neonates. (B58.29.w29)
|
| WATERFOWL |
|
| HEDGEHOGS |
- Gastro-intestinal disease (particularly around
weaning), sometimes respiratory signs and in
juveniles sudden death. (J15.21.w1,
B16.13.w13,
B22.27.w3)
|
| ELEPHANTS |
- Disease ranging from gastroenteritis and weakness to acute septicaemia causing sudden death
has been recorded in juveniles and
animals under stress. (B10.49.w21,
B450.23.w23, D301.3.w3, J2.19.w2, J3.65.w1,
J3.115.w3, J4.185.w1,
J35.132.w1, J25.4.w1,
J79.21.w1, P1.1985.w3)
- Commonly reported as fatal after one to three days or after weeks. (B214.3.7.w3)
- May result in abortion. (P30.1.w5)
- Has been associated with cholelithiasis. (J4.163.w2)
- Has been associated with necrosis of the extremities as a sequela
of chronic salmonellosis in calves. (J3.115.w3)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
- Often peracute without clinical signs before death. (B614.8.w8)
|
| BONOBOS |
- Enterocolitis and fatal enteritis have been recorded in bonobos. (J23.20.w2)
- Asymptomatic to severe diarrhoea in great apes. (B336.39.w39)
- Note: bacteraemia, local abscesses, including pyelonephritis,
osteomyelitis and arthritis have occurred in primates. (B22.31.w31f)
- In great apes, neonatal septicaemia and septic abortion are
reported. (B22.31.w31f)
|
| Clinical
Characteristics |
Mammals
Birds
- Variable.
- Acute to chronic,
- Septicaemic to localised;
- Subclinical or mild to severe;
- Mild infections may produce vague nonspecific signs.
Acute disease is seen most frequently in juveniles.
Emaciation and weakness may be seen in chronically infected adults
- Affected birds may appear weak, lethargic.
- May be visibly ill for several days before death or die more rapidly (D48)
- May continue trying to eat until close to death.
- Fluffed-up plumage
- Diarrhoea
- Elevated or subnormal temperature
- Chronic arthrosynovitis: chronic pain/swelling/stiffness of joint(s)
- Emaciation and weakness
- Panophthalmitis: Blindness. Eyeball may be replaced by a mass of
inspissated white pus
- Acute septicaemic infection may be fatal or last for one to several
weeks
In pigeons, listlessness, growth retardation and usually diarrhoea.
(B48.7.w7,
J35.123.w1, J3.136.w2,
D48). |
| WATERFOWL |
- Variable: Acute to chronic, septicaemic
or localised,
subclinical. Peracute or acute septicaemia common with infection of neonates.
- Sudden death, drowsiness and depression, anorexia, weight loss, stunting
of growth, polydipsia (excessive thirst), increased cloacal temperature, pale oral mucosa,
ruffled plumage, drooping tail, diarrhoea and soiling of vent feathers may all be seen.
- In domestic ducklings, dehydration, emaciation and pasting of the vent
with urates were common, while variable signs included gasping for air, apparent
blindness, swollen-shut oedematous eyelids, apparent blindness, locomotor incoordination,
tremor and occasionally opisthotonus (J5.5.w2, J5.6.w2).
- In chronic infection of adult birds, weakness and emaciation may be seen.
- Carriers may show no clinical signs.
Yolk sac Infection:
(J4.100.w1, J4.129.w1, B11.39.w7, B11.40.w8, B13.46.w1, B16.19.w1, B37.x.w1, B48.7.w7) |
|
HEDGEHOGS |
- Diarrhoea, anorexia and weight loss but no deaths. (B16.13.w13,
B271.29.w29)
- Persistent weight loss, green diarrhoea, prolapse of rectum or bowel,
dyspnoea. (J15.21.w1)
- Sudden death in unweaned juveniles.(J15.21.w1)
- Enteritis, sometimes with
septicaemia. (B291.12.w12)
- Mucoid diarrhoea, dehydration, anorexia and death. (B22.27.w3)
- May be asymptomatic (B291.12.w12): Salmonella spp. have been found in 28%
of clinically healthy hedgehogs. (B22.27.w3)
|
|
ELEPHANTS |
- Sudden death in calves, resulting from septicaemia. (J25.4.w1)
- Diarrhoea, preceded by anorexia, depression and weakness. (B10.49.w21,
B214.3.7.w3, D301.3.w3, J2.19.w2,
J4.185.w1, J79.21.w1,
P1.1985.w3,
P30.1.w5)
- In some cases the diarrhoea has been described as haemorrhagic. (J3.65.w1)
- Mucoid diarrhoea. (P30.1.w5,
D301.3.w3)
- Intestinal casts are frequently passed. (J3.115.w3)
- Marked loss of weight. (J35.132.w1,
P30.1.w5)
- Ventral oedema,
varying in size depending on exercise, has been recorded. (B450.18.w18,
B450. 23.w23,
P1.1985.w3)
- Vesicles and serous fluids on the feet have been seen associated with the
disease. (J3.115.w3)
- Two female elephants, 14 and 24 months pregnant, aborted two weeks and six weeks after the first signs of disease, respectively.
(P30.1.w5)
- Reluctance to lie down and signs of abdominal discomfort. (D301.3.w3,
J4.185.w1,
P1.1985.w3,
P30.1.w5)
- Jaundice. (J4.163.w2)
- Death of some of the animals affected occurred a few days after first symptoms
were recorded. (J3.65.w1,
J3.115.w3, J4.185.w1)
- Note: Salmonellosis in elephants does not always present
with diarrhoea. (V.w72)
|
|
BEARS |
- Diarrhoea was seen in a captive nine-day- old grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis)
[Ursus arctos - Brown bear] cub;
rotavirus and Salmonella agona were isolated. (J4.183.w4)
|
|
LAGOMORPHS |
Rabbits
Salmonellosis is often a peracute disease and so clinical signs may not
be observed. (B614.8.w8)
- Typical clinical findings:
- Asymptomatic carriers can occur. (B600.16.w16)
- Usually septicaemia and then rapid death. (B600.10.w10,
B601.8.w8,
B602.16.w16,
B603.1.w1,
B614.8.w8)
- Pyrexia and depression. (B603.1.w1,
B614.8.w8)
- Anorexia. (B614.8.w8)
- Emaciation. (B600.16.w16)
- Occasionally diarrhoea. (B600.10.w10,
B601.8.w8,
B602.16.w16,
B603.1.w1,
B614.8.w8)
- This can occur during weaning. (B603.1.w1)
- Other clinical findings:
- Salmonella can be a cause of myocardial or uterine
infection in the rabbit. (B601.9.w9,
B601.10.w10,
B603.3.w3)
- Abortion (B603.1.w1,
B614.8.w8)
- This may be the first sign of an outbreak. (B614.8.w8)
- Hepatitis secondary to spread of an intestinal infection via the
portal vein. (B603.1.w1)
- Dyspnoea and cyanosis may be seen if the respiratory tract is
involved. (B614.8.w8)
|
|
BONOBOS |
- In great apes, asymptomatic to diarrhoea which may mild to severe;
occasionally mucus and blood may be present in the diarrhoea. There
may be resultant dehydration. (B336.39.w39)
- Leucocytosis with a left shift or a degenerative left shift may
be present. (B336.39.w39)
- In neonates/infants, usually diarrhoea and/or lack of appetite.
(B338.18.w18)
- In primates, enteric salmonellosis produces sudden-onset watery
diarrhoea, sometimes (not usually) with mucus or blood. Pyrexia is
common. (B22.31.w31f,
B644.2.w2)
- Associated with the diarrhoea, anorexia and depression; rarely
vomiting; (B22.31.w31f)
Pyrexia is common. (B22.31.w31f,
B644.2.w2)
- Dehydration may occur and can be severe in young animals. (B22.31.w31f)
- Nonenteric salmonella infections in primates have included abortion,
neonatal septicaemia, pyelonephritic, osteomyelitis and gluteal
abscess. (B644.2.w2)
- Leucocytosis may be present, but the WBC count is generally elevated
less than in Shigella infections, and the percentage
mononuclear cells is higher. (B22.31.w31f)
- Hyponatraemia, hypochloraemia and metabolic acidosis may be present.
(B22.31.w31f)
- Hypoproteinaemia may occur since diarrhoea leads to reduced food
intake and anorexia. (B22.31.w31f)
|
Incubation |
WATERFOWL |
- Variable.
- Peracute to chronic.
- Acute septicaemia
and enteritis, chronic enteritis, chronic arthritis and
prolonged carrier status all reported.
- Ducklings are usually ill for two to three days before death.
(J5.5.w2, J6.10.w 3, B15). |
| HEDGEHOGS |
-- |
| ELEPHANTS |
- Two elephants from a group of 20 became ill and were the only
ones that had access to pooled water contaminated with faeces, a few
days before developing symptoms. (J4.185.w1)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
--
|
| BONOBOS |
--
|
Mortality /
Morbidity |
Birds and
mammals generally:
- Variable morbidity, has been associated with mortality.
- Outbreaks in garden birds, mortality may be greater than 50% in a local
population (D48,
P23.1999S.w3).
|
| WATERFOWL |
- Infection common in young domestic ducklings, rare in free-living
waterfowl.
- Morbidity and mortality in domestic duck flocks usually under 10%.
- Deaths of 2,000 of 16,000 mallard ducklings (12%) occurred during one
outbreak affecting ducklings one day to four weeks old.
(J4.129.w1, J5.5.w2, B13.46.w1, B15). |
| HEDGEHOGS |
- Infection is common in hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog)
in both England (25.0% of
individuals) (Salmonella enteritidis) and New Zealand (39.4% of
individuals) (Salmonella typhimurium). (J18.38.w1)
- Salmonella enteritidis phage type 11 found in 13/74 dead wild
hedgehogs; Salmonella typhimurium phage type 104 found in
one animal: infection in 18.9% of animals (J3.128.w2)
- Two surveys in Germany found Salmonella spp. in 49 of 410 animals (11.9%) (J138.61.w1)and 17.1% of 637 animals. (J3.128.w2)
- Death was attributed to salmonellosis in 78/109 hedgehog carcasses
from which the organism was isolated at a laboratory in Germany. (J138.66.w1)
- Incidence of 14.7% (of 34 hedgehogs) for isolation of Salmonella
spp. in Italy. (B228.9.w9)
- Rates of disease are lower than rates of infection. (J3.128.w2)
|
| ELEPHANTS |
- Two juvenile elephants that had access to pooled water contaminated
with faeces were diagnosed with clinical salmonellosis; one of them
died. (J4.185.w1)
- Two juvenile elephants that died as consequence of Salmonella typhimurium
infection had access to a water supply contaminated with faeces. (J3.65.w1)
- Salmonella typhimurium was isolated in an outbreak of the
disease that affected a group of four adult elephants and resulted in
abortion in two females. (P30.1.w5)
- In the only recorded outbreak of salmonellosis in Loxodonta africana
- African Elephants captured and confined in bomas in
the Kruger National Park, involving Salmonella typhimurium,
morbidity was "high" and mortality "significant".
(B70.B4.w1)
- A single fatal case of Salmonella hadar infection has
occurred in a captive Loxodonta africana
- African Elephant in the UK. (B70.B4.w1)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
Rabbits
- Uncommon in rabbits, particularly in the individual pet. (B600.10.w10,
B614.8.w8)
- Uncommon in wild rabbits in the UK. (P17.24.w1)
- Outbreaks of salmonellosis can cause high morbidity
and high mortality. (B602.16.w16,
B614.8.w8)
- In one outbreak of salmonellosis (due to Salmonella
typhimurium) that began in breeding does and then spread to
the young rabbits, 50 % mortality occurred. (B614.8.w8)
Prevalence of Infection in Hares
|
| BONOBOS |
|
Pathology |
Birds
Gross pathology:
- General body condition: Commonly very thin
- Septicaemic lesions.
- Gastro-intestinal tract - Crop wall may have areas of ulceration
and abscessation (diffuse or multiple 1-5mm yellow nodules). Crop may be full indicating
crop stasis.
- Liver: May be enlarged and congested may contain focal lesions.
- Spleen - may be enlarged and congested, may contain focal lesions.
- Kidney: may be congested.
- Respiratory tract - Lungs may be congested, contain focal
lesions.
- Musculoskeletal - joints may contain lesions.
- Eyes - may be lesions - Panophthalmitis: eyeball may be
replaced by a mass of inspissated white pus.
(D48, J3.136.w2)
Mammals
|
| WATERFOWL |
GENERALISED
INFECTION: Gross Pathology:
- Gross lesions may be seen in chronic disease, but in
peracute infection there may be no lesions or only a slightly swollen pale liver.
- Pasting of vent visible externally.
- Gastro-intestinal tract - lower small intestine, caeca and rectum
usually affected. Enteritis, enlarged and mottled lower small intestine and rectum,
caseous caecal plugs or cores.
- Liver - miliary abscesses/focal hepatic
necrosis
- Spleen - splenomegaly (may be six times normal size), often pale,
mottled.
- Kidney - Pale. Urate accumulation in ureters.
- Central nervous system - meningitis, with cerebral meninges opaque
and thickened.
- Yolk sac - brownish, unabsorbed (See Omphalitis / Yolk Sacculitis) (J4.100.w1, J5.5.w2).
Histopathology:
- Gastro-intestinal tract - May be inflammatory exudate on
serosal
surface. Infiltrate of heterophils in muscular and fibrous layers of the intestine, loss
of villi and sloughing of mucosa (sometimes complete) and considerable exudate in lumen.
- Liver - foci of necrosis. Heterophil foci throughout the liver.
Exudate around the bile ducts and blood vessels and some intralobular septa, also mainly
of heterophils.
- Spleen - diffuse heterophil infiltration, occasionally necrotic
foci.
- Kidney - massive interstitial heterophil infiltrate, congestion of
small vessels, frequently casts in tubules.
- Respiratory tract - occasional congestion and heterophil
infiltrate in lung parenchyma and affecting tunica externa and media of pulmonary
arteries. Exudate containing heterophils may be seen on the peritoneal surface of the air
sacs.
- Heart - variable pericarditis and epicarditis. Mainly heterophil
exudates, sometimes extending into the myocardium.
- Central nervous system -
Brain: Acute heterophilic leptomeningitis. Exudate filled with mainly
heterophils. Arteritis and periarteritis in leptomeninges and also deep in cerebrum, with
heterophil accumulation around vessels and in tunica media. Distension of lateral
ventricles by inflamed choroid plexi, also with predominantly heterophil exudate.
Spinal cord: Distension of spinal cord leptomeninges and heterophil exudate in
central canal may be seen.
Optic: heterophil perineuritis of optic chiasma, and optic neuritis.
(J5.5.w2).
ARTHRITIS:
- Swelling of affected joint. Joint distended with accumulated exudate.
Frequently thickened joint capsule. Inflammation of periarticular soft tissues and tendon
sheaths. Exudate may be cloudy, fibrino-purulent and red-brown. Sometimes dryish and
yellow-grey.
- Articular cartilage degenerated and necrotic, sometimes extending to
affect subchondral bone.
(J6.10.w3).
CHRONIC REPRODUCTIVE TRACT INFECTION:
- Oophoritis may occur in females and orchiditis in males.
YOLK SAC INFECTION:
(J4.129.w1, J5.6.w2, B10.26.w10,
B11.40.w8, B16.19.w1,
B37.x.w1) |
| HEDGEHOGS |
|
| ELEPHANTS |
Gross Pathology:
- Ventral subcutaneous oedema and generalized
lymphadenopathy. (P1.1985.w3)
- Subcutaneous haemorrhage
of the forelimbs and abdominal surface. (J4.163.w2)
- Gastro-intestinal:
- Gastroenteritis with thickening of the mucosa and
a diphtheritic deposit
on the mucosa of the intestine. (J2.19.w2,
J25.4.w1)
- Oedematous mucosal inflammation of the small intestines. (J4.163.w2)
- Congestion, necrotic foci and ulceration of the stomach and
intestinal mucosa. (J2.19.w2)
- Haemorrhages of the
serosa and mucosa of small intestines. (J4.185.w1)
- Haemorrhagic content of the gastrointestinal tract. (J2.19.w2)
- Severe generalized necrosis of the intestines. (J35.132.w1)
- Liver:
- White foci and congestion (J2.19.w2,
P1.1985.w3)
- Hepatomegaly with rounded
edges due to inflammation; pale and
friable. The hepatic duct was dilated and contained faceted
gallstones. The biliary ducts were thickened and dilated, filled with
opaque light yellow bile and stones varying in size. (J4.163.w2)
- Spleen: White foci. (P1.1985.w3)
- Kidneys: Congestion.(J2.19.w2)
- Urinary: Fibrin-like clots in bladder. (J25.4.w1)
- Heart: Petechial haemorrhages on both auricles, the atrioventricular valves and
the epicardium. (J2.19.w2)
- Lungs: Congestion. (J2.19.w2)
Histopathology:
- Gastro-intestinal:
- Acute, necrotic ulceration of the intestinal mucosa, with extensive epithelial loss, oedema, congestion and perivascular
haemorrages. Polymorphonuclear inflammatory infiltration and
bacterial colonies were found in superficial necrotic
tissue. (J4.185.w1)
- Liver: Acute necrosis and gram negative rods were found in tissue
section. (P1.1985.w3)
- Spleen: Congestion with large numbers of macrophages and
haemosiderin. (J4.163.w2)
- Brain: Focal granulomatous lesion on the left temporal lobe
of the cerebral cortex. (B450.23.w23)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
Rabbits
The pathological findings of salmonellosis are consistent with septicaemia:
- General: congestion and petechiation of multiple organs. (B602.16.w16,
B603.3.w3, B614.8.w8)
This may be the only pathology seen in peracute cases. (B614.8.w8)
- Liver, spleen, kidney, myocardium and lymph nodes: necrotic
foci surrounded by polymorphonuclear leucocytes may be seen in acute
cases of salmonellosis. (B602.16.w16,
B603.3.w3, B614.8.w8)
The lymph nodes may also be oedematous. (B614.8.w8)
- Respiratory tract: congestion, oedema, focal haemorrhages,
and atelectasis may be seen early on in the disease progressing
rapidly to terminal suppurative bronchopenumonia. (B614.8.w8)
- Reproductive tract: evidence of abortion or fetal death along
with suppurative necrotising metritis may be seen in pregnant does,
particularly if they are in late gestation. (B614.8.w8)
|
| BONOBOS |
In primates: (B22.31.w31f)
Gross Pathology
- GIT:
- Inflammatory reaction of the jejunum, ileum and colon, mainly
polymorphonuclear cells initially, later lymphocytes and monocytes.
Inflammation is less severe in the large intestine than is seen
with Shigella infection. (B22.31.w31f)
- Congestion and oedema of the ileum, caecum and colon. (B22.31.w31f)
- Lymph nodes: Mesenteric lymph nodes swollen. (B22.31.w31f)
Histopathology
- Small intestines and large intestines: epithelial degeneration and
desquamation. Infiltration of the lamina propria with small round
cells and histiocytes. In crypts, a few microabscesses may be found. (B22.31.w31f)
|
Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity
in:
|
- A wide variety of bird and mammal species. (B48.7.w7)
- Various garden birds including greenfinches, chaffinches, house sparrows,
bullfinches. (B48.7.w7,
P23.1999S.w3,
D48)
- Salmonella typhimurium has been isolated from feral pigeons (Columba
livia - Rock pigeon), greenfinches (Carduelis
chloris - European greenfinch), tawny owl (Strix
aluco - Tawny owl), hooded crow (Corvus
corone - Carrion crow ), rook (Corvus
frugilegus - Rook), red-throated diver (Gavia
stellata - Red-throated loon), mallard (Anas
platyrhynchos - Mallard), mute swan (Cygnus
olor - Mute swan), house sparrows (Passer
domesticus - House sparrow), herring gull (Larus
argentatus - Herring gull), wood pigeon (Columba
palumbas - Common wood-pigeon), starlings (Sturnus
vulgaris - Common starling) (J35.123.w1)
- Greenfinches (Carduelis
chloris - European greenfinch), chaffinch (Fringilla
coelebs - Chaffinch), house sparrows (Passer
domesticus - House sparrow), great tit (Parus
major - Great tit), herring gull (Larus
argentatus - Herring gull), and harbour porpoise (Phocoena
phocoena - Harbour porpoise) during 1996-1997 (N5.3.w1).
- Young pigeon (Columba
livia - Rock pigeon) in 1999; also roe deer (Capreolus
capreolus - Western roe deer), hedgehog (Erinaceus
europaeus - West European hedgehog), harbour porpoise (Phocoena
phocoena - Harbour porpoise), seal (species not given) and cultured from
the faeces of badger (Meles
meles - Eurasian badger) on a farm with the same organism (Salmonella
agama) isolated from cows.(D49)
Waterfowl
- Ducks, geese (B36.9.w9).
- White Pekin ducks Anas platyrhynchos domesticus on Long Island,
New York, USA; mainly Salmonella typhimurium (J5.5.w2, J5.6.w2).
- Free-range domestic ducks Anas platyrhynchos domesticus with
arthritis. (J6.10.w3)
- Wood ducks Aix sponsa being reared in Illinois, USA. (J1.100.w1)
- Mallard ducklings, 1day to four weeks old, reared in Maryland, USA. Acute
septicaemia with 12% lost from 16,000 birds; both Salmonella typhimurium and Salmonella
anatum identified. (J4.129.w1)
- Tufted duck Aythya fuligula, scaup Aythya marila,
goosanders (common merganser) Mergus merganser on the coast of Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany, utilising areas fed by warm waste-water in severe frosty weather. (J7.13.w1)
- Mute swans Cygnus olor taken to a rescue centre for treatment
after pollution with light oil, from a river known to be polluted from e.g. storm sewage
overflows. (J3.97.w4)
- Infection with Salmonella typhimurium reported in a wild tufted
duck Aythya fuligula in the UK, with a note that infection had also been recorded
in a mallard (J3.70.w3)
- Infection reported, mainly with Salmonella typhimurium, in
domestic ducks in the UK (1968-1973) (J3.96.w1).
- Salmonella typhimurium isolated from a Whooper swan Cygnus
cygnus and two mute swans Cygnus olor dying from other illnesses in Scotland,
UK (J36.41.w1).
- Isolation from a mallard Anas platyrhynchos and a mute swan Cygnus
olor in the UK; also noted infection reported in barnacle goose Branta leucopsis
from Schleswig Holstein, Germany. (J35.123.w1)
- Salmonella spp. were isolated from waterfowl submitted for
diagnostic evaluation in Massachusetts, USA: ducklings, 0-4 weeks old, in which isolations
were made variously from the heart, liver, yolk sac and intestines, and a swan, in which
isolation was made from the intestines. (J5.10.w1)
In Hedgehogs
- Hedgehogs; primary salmonellosis in wild hedgehogs,
also sudden death in unweaned juveniles and gastrointestinal disease
around weaning time. (J15.21.w1)
- Common in hedgehogs in both England (25.0% of individuals) (Salmonella
enteritidis) and New Zealand (39.4% of individuals) (Salmonella
typhimurium). Salmonella sofia has been isolated from the
alimentary tract of hedgehogs in Europe. (J18.38.w1)
- Hedgehogs in East Anglia, England, UK: Salmonella enteritidis
phage type 11 found 13/74 dead wild hedgehogs; Salmonella typhimurium
phage type 104 found in one animal. (J3.128.w2)
- Hedgehogs have also been reported infected with Salmonella
brancaster in the UK, Salmonella edmonton, Salmonella
thompson, Salmonella stanleyville, Salmonella paratyphi
B and Salmonella dublin in Italy. In Germany Salmonella
enteritidis (phage type not stated), was the dominant
serotype, but Salmonella typhimurium var copenhagen
and 10 other serovars were also isolated. (J3.128.w2)
- Incidence of 14.7% (of 34 hedgehogs) for isolation of Salmonella spp.
in Italy: Salmonella edmonton, Salmonella thompson, Salmonella
stanleyville, and Salmonella enteritidis have been isolated.
(B228.9.w9)
- In Sicily, Salmonella dublin, Salmonella paratyphi
and Salmonella typhimurium have been isolated from hedgehogs. (B228.9.w9)
- In Greece, Salmonella adasuta, Salmonella bispeberg, Salmonella carro, Salmonella halle, Salmonella kisarewe
and Salmonella miami have been isolated from hedgehogs. (B228.9.w9)
- Salmonella enterica serovar Enteridis phage type 11 and phage
type 9a (10 and six strains respectively), also seven strains not
conforming to a known phage types, were isolated from hedgehogs in
Denmark, 1994-1998. (J93.38.w2)
- High prevalence of Salmonella typhimurium in samples of
hedgehog faeces in Norway in an area (Jeloy, south-east Norway)
simultaneously with an outbreak of salmonellosis due to Salmonella
typhimurium in humans. (P35.3.w18)
- In Norway Salmonella Typhimurium was detected in samples from
39% of 99 hedgehogs sampled in the area of one human outbreak (Jeloy)
and in 41% of 82 hedgehogs samples in the area of another outbreak (Askoy,
Bergen and Os), but in 0% of 115 and 24 individuals sampled from two
other locations. The PFGE profiles of the hedgehog isolated matched
those of the isolates from humans in the same locality. It was
considered likely that the hedgehogs constituted the primary source for
the human infections. (J19.128.w1)
- Salmonella enteritidis isolated from faeces in a captive colony
of hedgehogs in Nottingham, UK, associated with loss of condition in
some individuals. (B271.29.w29)
- Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella thompson and Salmonella
stanleyville, sometimes in combined infections, were detected during
a survey in Italy. (J139.23.w1)
- Salmonella typhimurium isolated from the faeces of 13/33 wild
hedgehogs from Hamilton, New Zealand, and from a combined homogenate of
liver, spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes in 3/9 animals (all three of
which also had the organism in their faeces); one animal was positive
for Salmonella typhimurium in the faces but negative from the
homogenised organs. (J10.12.w1)
- In the UK, isolates have been made from hedgehogs of Salmonella
brancaster and Salmonella enteritidis var. jena;
additional isolates from hedgehogs outside the UK include Salmonella
adamstua, Salmonella bispebjerg, Salmonella cerro, Salmonella
halle, Salmonella kisarawe and Salmonella miami. (P17.24.w1)
- Salmonellosis was diagnosed in 49/410 hedgehogs Erinaceus
europaeus examined post mortem 1975-1979. (J138.61.w1)
- Salmonellae were isolated from 47/1721 (2.7%) of hedgehog faecal
samples and from 109/637 (17.1%) of hedgehog carcasses submitted to a
laboratory in Germany and death was attributed to salmonellosis in
78/109 of the individuals from which the organism was isolated. Salmonella
enteritidis was isolated in 70/78 cases of salmonella septicaemia as
well as in 16/31 latent infections and 23/47 positive faecal samples.
Other isolates from diseased individuals included Salmonella
typhimurium and Salmonella copenhagen. (J138.66.w1)
- Salmonella enteritidis
was isolated from the lymph nodes of 8/200 hedgehogs (Erinaceus
europaeus) from three locations in New Zealand (4/19 animals from
Wairarapa, 4/53 animals from North Canterbury, but 0/128 animals from
Otoag). Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from the lymph nodes
of two individuals from Palmerston North. (J195.24.w1)
- Salmonella tilene has been isolated from African pygmy
hedgehogs [Atelerix albiventris (Atelerix albiventris - Four-toed hedgehog)] in Canada (associated with
salmonellosis in human children); Salmonella typhimurium has also
been isolated. (J93.35.w1)
- Salmonella tilene has been isolated from African pygmy
hedgehogs [Atelerix albiventris] in the USA associated with human
salmonellosis. (W170.Sept02.H1)
In Elephants
Elephas maximus
- Asian Elephant
- Salmonella oslo was isolated post mortem from a
15-year old circus elephant imported to France from Ceylon. (J79.21.w1)
- Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from one of two
calves that died as consequence of the infection in the zoological
gardens of Sri Lanka (former Ceylon). (J3.65.w1)
- Salmonella blockey was recover from the liver, mesenteric
lymph node and heart blood from two Asian elephant calves kept in captivity in
Malaysia. (J2.19.w2)
Loxodonta africana
- African Elephant
- Salmonella enteritidis was isolated from post
mortem tissues of two elephants in a holding ground in Nairobi where several
juveniles were kept after being trapped in Uganda several months
before. (J25.4.w1)
- Salmonella montevideo (group C) was isolated from
frozen faeces collected post mortem in a juvenile elephant at the San
Diego Wild Animal Park. Salmonella typhimurium was later isolated from fresh faeces in an
asymptomatic
elephant from
the same herd. (J4.185.w1)
- Salmonella typhimurium was isolated in an outbreak of
salmonellosis in Oakland Zoo that affected four animals and resulted in
abortion in two cases. (P30.1.w5)
- A multi-serotype Salmonella infection was confirmed in a
group of six three-and-a-half-year-old captive wild-caught elephants
previously infested with intestinal flukes in a zoological park in Southern
England. (J35.132.w1)
In bears
- Rotavirus and Salmonella agona were isolated from a captive nine-day-old grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis)
[Ursus arctos - Brown bear]
cub with
diarrhoea. (J4.183.w4)
- Salmonella sp. was isolated from a seven-year-old,
captive Kodiak bear (Ursus arctos - Brown bear) in a case of antibiotic-associated colitis caused by Clostridium difficile
(See: Clostridium difficile Infection in Bears). (J13.44.w1)
- A survey of Ursus americanus - American black
bears in Florida, detected Salmonella litchfield in a
five-month-old cub from Alachua county. (B419.14.w14)
- Salmonellosis (Salmonella typhimurium in five cases, Salmonella
dublin in one case, Salmonella abony in one case,
unspecified in one case) was considered the primary cause of death in
eight Ursus arctos - Brown bear
cubs at Rostock zoo and was a secondary finding in several other cubs.
(P5.29.w5)
In lagomorphs
- Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus
- Domestic European rabbit:
- Salmonellosis is an uncommon disease in rabbits. However, in the
early 1900s salmonellosis was prevalent and there were several
reports of explosive outbreaks causing death in large numbers of
rabbits. Most rabbits died rapidly from septicaemia although
diarrhoea was occasionally reported. An outbreak of Salmonella
enteriditis infection in pregnant does in 1936 resulted in
abortion and subsequent death. (B614.8.w8)
- Salmonella mbandaka was reported in 1984 as the cause of
rabbits dying peracutely after experimental manipulation. (B614.8.w8)
- Lepus europaeus - Brown hare:
salmonellae have been isolated from this species. However, one
study in Denmark in 1994 revealed less than 1% of 975 European brown hares
to be infected. (B209.28.w28i)
- Lepus timidus -
Mountain hare
salmonellae have been isolated from this species. (B209.28.w28i)
In primates
Further information on Host species has only
been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and
Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature
review has been undertaken). Host species with further information
available are listed below:
|
Host Species List |
BIRDS:
MAMMALS:
(List does not contain all other species groups affected by this
infectious agent)
|
General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis
|
- Clinical signs may be suggestive.
- Diagnosis must be confirmed by pathological findings (septicaemic lesions or necrotising
enteritis).
- Special culture techniques must be used to culture the organism from samples of faeces,
feed, water supplies, tissues etc.
- (B101)
Birds
- The pattern of an epidemic in wild birds may be suggestive.
- Clinical signs, post mortem examination findings.
- Isolation of Salmonella
spp. from faecal material, blood or affected organs.
- N.B. Salmonella
spp. may also be carried asymptomatically.
(B48.7.w7,
D48)
Mammals
- Enteric salmonellosis: direct plating of faecal samples/intestinal
scrapings onto selective and differential media (e.g. MacConkey, brilliant green, salmonella-shigella, xylose-lysine, deoxycholate, Hektoen, bismuth
sulphite) (B47)
|
| WATERFOWL |
- Clinical signs, post
mortem lesions, serology.
- Culture from faeces or from organs at post mortem
examination, and identification of Salmonella
spp.
- Sterile swab of fresh faeces or gut contents; place swab into nutrient broth
or transport medium if delay prior to culture.
- Selective enrichment media should be used
for detection of Salmonella
spp. in faeces of apparently healthy carriers.
(B10.26.w10, B11.39.w7, B14, B16.19.w1, B37.x.w1, B48.7.w7,)
|
|
HEDGEHOGS |
- Diagnosis requires laboratory culture. (B16.13.w13)
- Submission of whole carcass for post mortem examination and
bacteriology.(J15.21.w1)
- May not be cultured successfully if only swabs or tissues are posted to a
laboratory for culture.(J15.21.w1)
|
|
ELEPHANTS |
- Consider salmonella infection in elephants with diarrhoea, also
in any elephants with vague or acute life-threatening signs. (V.w72)
- Tentative diagnosis can be based on clinical signs, haematological
and serum chemistry findings such as leucopaenia, neutropaenia, hyperfibrinogenaemia
and decreased in the total protein. (J4.185.w1,
P30.1.w5,
D301.3.w3)
- In a case of atypical salmonellosis, haematology revealed a
severe anaemia
(PCV of
9.5%) and neutrophilia with a regenerative left
shift. Serum chemistry was within the normal limits, despite severe
liver necrosis that was
detected post mortem. (P1.1985.w3)
- Culture from faeces or from organs at post mortem
examination, and identification of Salmonella
spp. (B10.49.w21, J3.65.w1,
J4.185.w1, J35.132.w1,
J25.4.w1, D301.3.w3)
- Salmonellae can be difficult to detect by culture methods
(including enrichment techniques). A preliminary study on PCR in
faecal samples from elephants showed that a symptomatic Salmonella shedding
can be detected using this diagnostic test. However, the
prevalence of asymptomatic infection and shedding in elephants was
found to be difficult to determine. (P501.1.w1)
- The use of a DNA-probe for diagnosis of salmonellosis may be useful
in the future to detect asymptomatic carriers. (B336.53.w53)
|
|
LAGOMORPHS |
Diagnosis is based on isolation and identification of the organism in conjunction with evidence of disease that
is compatible with salmonellosis.
- Culture:
- From the living animal: faeces.
- From the dead animal, specimens can be taken for culture from:
small intestine, colon, spleen, liver or mesenteric lymph nodes.
(B209.28.w28i,
B603.3.w3)
|
|
BONOBOS |
In primates:
- Culture of the organism. (B336.39.w39)
- Isolation of Salmonella sp. from faeces, a rectal swab or the
site of a lesion. (B644.2.w2)
- Ideally, 1-2 g recently-passed faeces is placed in Gram-negative or
selenite broth immediately and incubated at 37 C. (B644.2.w2)
- Refrigerate samples if they must be transported before culture. (B644.2.w2)
place samples into an appropriate transport medium. (B22.31.w31f)
- At necropsy, liver, spleen, intestinal tract, lung and lymph nodes
should be cultured (also uterus/placenta/fetus in suspect septic
abortion). (B644.2.w2)
- Salmonella forms clear round colonies on MacConkey agar.
Lactose negative. Motile: visible microscopically in a hanging drop or
wet mount. Three are a large number of serovars; serotyping can be
useful. (B644.2.w2)
- On a faecal smear stained with methylene blue, mononuclear
leucocytes tend to be found, compared with polymorphonuclear cells
predominating with Shigella infections [Shigellosis in Bonobos]. (B22.31.w31f)
|
| Related Techniques |
|
 |
Specific Medical Treatment
|
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics parenterally to treat septicaemia;
(B101)
- Antibiotics should be chosen according to culture and sensitivity (B10.26.w10, B11.39.w7, B11.40.w8, B37.x.w1,
B47).
- Antibiotics may be effective against clinical disease but may not prevent
animals from becoming carriers (B13.46.w1,
B101).
N.B. Fluid therapy may also be required and is often essential to
correct fluid deficit and acid-base imbalances - see below: General
Nursing and Surgical Techniques
|
| WATERFOWL |
|
|
HEDGEHOGS |
- Antibiotics, preferably chosen based on bacterial culture and sensitivity testing.
(J34.24.w1, D107)
- Enrofloxacin (Baytril, Bayer) 10mg/kg oral,
intramuscularly, subcutaneously or intraperitoneally, twice daily; amoxycillin/clavulanic acid
(Synulox, Pfizer) 30-50mg/kg orally, intramuscularly or subcutaneously, twice daily; or spectinomycin.
(J15.21.w1)
- Chloramphenicol,
oral administration. (B16.13.w13)
- Antimicrobial tests on isolates from hedgehogs in Germany found that
for Salmonella enteritidis suitable antibiotics were chloramphenicol,
neomycin and streptomycin
while for Salmonella typhimurium ampicillin
was the most effective. 5.3% of Salmonella enteritidis and 4.9%
of Salmonella typhimurium isolates were gentamicin-resistant.
(J138.66.w1)
- Chloramphenicol, 20 mg per 100 g bodyweight (0.1 mL of 200 mg/mL
solution per 100g bodyweight) subcutaneously for 5-7 days; neomycin
0.1 mL of 20 mg/ml solution per 100g bodyweight orally; enrofloxacin
1.25 mg/100 g bodyweight (0.05 mL of 2.5% solution per 100 g bodyweight)
subcutaneously for 3-5 days; gentamicin
(for cases resistant to other
antibiotics, following culture and sensitivity testing) 10 mg per
hedgehog under 500g bodyweight, 25 mg per hedgehog over 500 g bodyweight
subcutaneously for 5-7 days. (B291.12.w12)
- Potentiated sulphonamides (e.g. Tribrissen (Trimethoprim/
Sulphonamide)
24% (Schering-Plough
Animal Health), 30 mg/kg once daily intramuscularly or
subcutaneously, for five to eight days, or Zaquilan (Schering-Plough
Animal Health) 20-40 mg/kg orally once daily), or Amoxycillin
/ Clavulanic acid
(30-50 mg/kg twice daily orally, subcutaneously or intramuscularly) or
Enrofloxacin
(10 mg/kg twice daily subcutaneously, intramuscularly or orally). (D107)
|
|
ELEPHANTS |
- High doses of antibiotics based on culture and sensitivity. Chloramphenicol,
gentamicin
and ampicillin
may be administered as a first choice while waiting for culture
and sensitivity report. (B10.49.w21,
D301.3.w3)
- Parental and oral administration of antibiotics and sulfonamides
using twice or three times the doses for cattle has been recommended. (B214.3.7.w3)
- Ampicillin
10 g intramuscularly daily for five days. (J4.185.w1)
- Ampicillin
6.8 g intramuscularly daily for seven days and 6 g orally for
three days; tetracycline 1-2 g orally twice daily for four days. (P1.1985.w3)
- Good results were obtained using streptomycin
in syrup form and oral ampicillin
40-50 mg/kg. (B214.3.7.w3)
- Nitrofurazone,
oral administration of an unspecified dose was given to group of
captive elephants after the sudden death of two juveniles and diagnostic
confirmation
of salmonellosis on culture of post mortem
tissues. No further deaths were recorded. (J25.4.w1)
- Penicillin G
5670 IU/kg intramuscularly once daily in combination with
ceftiofur 2.5 mg/kg intramuscularly once daily, added two days after
the initial treatment. Culture and sensitivity showed that the Salmonella
typhimurium isolate was resistant to penicillin group antibiotics
but sensitive to amikacin, therefore treatment was changed to
amikacin, initially at 3.77 mg/kg intravenously every 12 hours and then
increased to 5 mg/kg intravenously every 12 hours to reach the
therapeutic range. Polymixin B 3000 IU/kg intravenously every 12 hours
was also added to the treatment as a binder of endotoxins. (P30.1.w5)
- Amikacin
at 6 mg/kg was immediately started on a second female elephant
showing signs of disease after Salmonella typhimurium was
isolated from another elephant of the group and proved to be sensitive
to this antibiotic. (P30.1.w5)
- Trimethoprim-sulfadiazide
4.5 mg/kg orally for 12 days was given in a case of vaginal
discharge three months after abortion and persistent Salmonella-positive
culture. (P30.1.w5)
N.B. Fluid therapy may also be required - see below: General
Nursing and Surgical Techniques
|
|
LAGOMORPHS |
- "No successful treatment has been described." (B600.16.w16)
- Antibiotics
- Antimicrobial therapy may be attempted on the
basis of culture and sensitivity. (B603.3.w3)
- However, the zoonotic implications
frequently necessitate euthanasia because there is a possibility of
the survivors becoming inapparant carriers. (B603.3.w3,
B614.8.w8)
- If treatment is necessary, chloramphenicol
is usually the drug
of choice. (B614.8.w8)
|
|
BONOBOS |
In great apes: Treatment is not always needed; in individuals with
dehyddration or systemic signs, antibiotics and fluids should be given. (B336.39.w39)
In primates.
- Antibiotic treatment, based on culture and sensitivity testing. (B22.31.w31f,
B644.2.w2)
- To reduce the likelihood of the animal becoming a carrier, only
give antibiotics in severe cases. (B644.2.w2)
- Use of appropriate antimicrobials may reduce shedding and
thereby reduce the spread of infection through a group of
primates. (B22.31.w31f)
- Cephalothin,
Cefazolin,
Trimethoprim-Sulphonamide,
Ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin are recommended.
Note: many
strains of Salmonella are resistant to antibiotics
including
Ampicillin,
Erythromycin,
chloramphenicol,
Tetracycline, kanamycin and dihydrostreptomycin. [1993](B22.31.w31f)
- Three to five days of treatment should eliminate the organism but
clinical signs may persist longer than this. (B22.31.w31f)
- Note: Use of antimotility agents is contraindicated;
retardation of intestinal motility may make the animals, condition
worse and increase the time for which the pathogen is excreted. (B22.31.w31f)
|
| Related Techniques |
|
|
|
Environmental
and Population Control Measures
|
| General Environment Changes,
Cleaning and Disinfection |
Ensure good general hygiene and
pest control around animal accommodation; protect foodstuffs from contamination by
droppings of wild rodents and birds. (B47)
- For wild birds such as "garden birds".
- Move feeding stations regularly, avoid feeding at the same site continuously.
- Avoid using suspended feeders with sills on which food particles and droppings may
collect
- Clean up discarded feed and droppings from under suspended feeders and bird tables
regularly e.g. by sweeping, and dispose of hygienically (incineration is ideal).
- Brush bird tables or other surfaces used for feeding daily.
- Thoroughly clean bird feeders/tables regularly (as appropriate for speed of build up of
droppings) and daily during a disease outbreak.
- Wash or soak feeders/tables using a 5% sodium hypochlorite solution or a safe
disinfectant (e.g. Tamodine-E, Vetark), followed by thorough rinsing.
- Use fresh, good-quality foods, dispose of uneaten food hygienically
- Store foods carefully in rodent-proof containers.
- (D48)
|
| WATERFOWL |
- Improve general hygiene and hygiene of feed storage (J4.129.w1, J5.6.w2, B10.26.w10, B11.39.w7, B13.46.w1,
B18, B37.x.w1).
- Clean feeding utensils, rearing coops, duckery mats daily, clean and fumigate hatchers
between batches.
- Remove and preferably incinerate soiled food.
- General incubation and hatchery hygiene.
- Fumigation.
- (B11.39.w7).
|
| HEDGEHOGS |
- Good hygiene and disinfection are important. (B291.12.w12)
|
| ELEPHANTS |
- Good hygiene, disinfection with bleach and recommendations on food
handling. (J4.185.w1,
J35.132.w1, J25.4.w1,
D301.3.w3)
- Dirty conditions, where workers are not provided with adequate
latrines, may result in the transmission of infection from human to
captive elephants. (J25.4.w1)
- Rodent control. (D301.3.w3)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
Eliminate potential sources of exposure, e.g. wild rodents and poor
quality feed. (B614.8.w8)
|
| BONOBOS |
|
| Population Control Measures |
- Avoid overcrowding. (B47)
- Reduce stocking densities at wild bird feeding stations by e.g. reducing food quantity
supplied (D48)
|
| WATERFOWL |
- Identify and remove carrier birds (repeated testing of faecal samples required for
detecting carriers), restock after outbreak (J4.129.w1,
B13.46.w1,
B18, B36.9.w9)
- Reduce stocking levels (B11.40.w8).
|
| HEDGEHOGS |
--
|
| ELEPHANTS |
- Reduce stress. (D301.3.w3)
- Regular deworming. (D301.3.w3)
|
| LAGOMORPHS |
--
|
| BONOBOS |
--
|
| Isolation, Quarantine and Screening |
- Isolation, quarantine and screening are extremely important when
salmonellosis is suspected and in situations where it is likely to be a risk.
- Repeated faecal samples are required for screening purposes, particularly
when new animals are brought into a group and for the identification of carriers.
(B101)
|
| WATERFOWL
|
--
|
| HEDGEHOGS
|
--
|
| ELEPHANTS
|
--
|
| LAGOMORPHS
|
--
|
| BONOBOS
|
In primates: Ideally,
carriers are identified, isolated and removed from the population or
treated. However, treatment may result in antibiotic resistance, and
might prolong the carrier state. (B22.31.w31f)
|
| Related Techniques |
|
|
|
