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Diseases / List of Parasitic Diseases / Disease description:

Cestode Infection in Waterfowl

INFORMATION AVAILABLE

GENERAL INFORMATION

CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS & PATHOLOGY

INVESTIGATION & DIAGNOSIS

TREATMENT & CONTROL

SUSCEPTIBILITY & TRANSMISSION

ENVIRONMENT & GEOGRAPHY

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General and References

Disease Summary
WATERFOWL Usually subclinical. May be pathogenic in young or debilitated hosts.

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Alternative Names (Synonyms)
  • Tapeworm infection
  • Dwarf tapeworm infection

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Disease Type
 Parasitic - Tapeworms and Flukes

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Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease
Tapeworms (Cestodes), including Hymenolepis spp. and others (J3.3.w1, B9.6.w1, B15, B16.19.w1, B18, B24).

Infective "Taxa"

Non-infective agents

 --

Physical agents

 -- Indirect / Secondary

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References

Disease Author

 Debra Bourne
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Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

 B9.6.w1, B11.39.w7, B12.55.w1, B15, B16.19.w1, B24, B37.x.w1, B36.35.w35
J7.30.w2
J8.17.w1
P4.1992.w1

Other References

Code and Title List

 B91
J1.11.w5, J1.13.w6, J1.13.w7, J1.16.w8, J1.17.w6, J1.32.w1, J1.33.w4
J3.3.w1, J3.70.w1
J4.99.w1
J7.3.w1, J7.4.w1, J7.5.w1, J7.6.w1, J7.34.w1
J14.11.w1, J14.19.w1
J36.44.w1

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Clinical Characteristics and Pathology

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

General

 WATERFOWL Usually a subclinical infection of the gastro-intestinal tract seen as incidental findings at post mortem examination; may be pathogenic in debilitated birds.

Clinical Characteristics

 WATERFOWL Usually subclinical except in association with other diseases or in birds in poor condition. Diarrhoea, weight loss, emaciation and anorexia may be seen with heavy infections and deaths have been reported. Heavy infections may also cause physical distention and blockage of the intestine.

(J3.3.w1, J7.30.w2, B11.39.w7, B12.55.w1, B15, B16.19.w1, B37.x.w1)

Incubation

 WATERFOWL Heavy infections may occur within as little as two weeks of hatching. Mature tapeworms present by two weeks after infection (B15).

Mortality / Morbidity

 WATERFOWL  Rarely pathogenic, except in young or debilitated birds with heavy infections (P4.1992.w1).May cause death in birds in poor condition (J7.30.w2).

Pathology

 WATERFOWL
  • Intestinal tract - Catarrhal enteritis. Cestodes in any area of the intestinal tract (B11.39.w7, B16.19.w1, B37.x.w1). May be found clustered in one place (J7.33.w4)
  • Gizzard - Gastrotaenia spp. may cause inflammation, tissue necrosis and haemorrhage (J5.13.w3, B15, B36.35.w35).
  • Ureters - immature Cloacotaenia may be found causing inflammation and swelling of the ureters (B15, B36.35.w35).

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Human Health Considerations
None (B37.x.w1).

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Susceptibility / Transmission

General information on Susceptibility / Transmission
WATERFOWL
  • Birds in poor condition are more susceptible to developing heavy infections (J7.30.w2, B18).
  • Juveniles may also develop heavy infections, particularly swans (B11.39.w7, B12.55.w1, B18)).
  • Various invertebrates and fish may act as intermediate hosts (B13.46.w1, B16.19.w1).

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Disease / Agent has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:
  • Hymenolepis spp. reported from all swan species and have been recorded as a factor in mortality of mute swans Cygnus olor in the UK and also in trumpeter swans Cygnus buccinator (B9.6.w1).
  • Greater Magellan (upland) geese Chloephaga picta leucoptera on the Falkland Islands, together with nematode infections of the gizzard and caecae (J7.33.w4).
  • Cestodes recorded in a wild Trumpeter swan Cygnus buccinator which also contained gizzard worms, acanthocephala and intestinal flukes (J14.11.w1)
  • Hymenolepis spp. infection recorded as the cause of death for a juvenile Bahama pintail Anas bahamensis, and for adult northern shoveler Anas clypeata, Common pochard Aythya ferina, and Carolina (wood duck) Aix sponsa in a UK collection (J7.4.w1).
  • Hymenolepis spp. infection recorded as the cause of death for adult Common pochard Aythya ferina puna teal Anas puna, Barrow's goldeneye Bucephala islandica, Cinnamon teal Anas cyanoptera in a UK collection (J7.5.w1).
  • Hymenolepis spp. infection recorded as the cause of death for juvenile mandarin Aix galericulata, red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator, rosy-bill Netta peposaca, Carolina Aix sponsa, Brazilian teal , and redhead Aythya americana , and an adult Abyssinian black duck Anas sparsa, in a UK collection (J7.6.w1).
  • Severe infection in Harlequin duck Histrionicus histrionicus and spectacled eider Somateria fischeri in a UK collection (J7.30.w2)
  • Severe infection in a juvenile bar-headed goose Anser indicus in a UK collection (J7.34.w1).
  • In a wild mute swan Cygnus olor in the UK, associated with cold weather and a low food availability (J36.44.w1).
  • Various species, particularly Hymenolepis sp., found in free-flying and captive waterfowl in British Columbia, Canada (J14.19.w1).
  • Recorded in Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, Canada goose Branta canadensis, redhead Aythya americana and Scaup, and appeared to be the primary cause of death in some juvenile Canada geese and a few mallard (J4.99.w1)
  • Heavy mixed cestode infection recorded as the cause of 'going light' and deaths in ducks in the UK (J3.3.w1).
  • Heavy infestation recorded in a wild tufted duck Aythya fuligula in the UK, which was also infected with Salmonella typhimurium and several nematodes (J3.70.w1).
  • Five cestode species recorded in a survey of endoparasites of the black-bellied whistling-duck Dendrocygna autumnalis in Texas, USA (J1.11.w5).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild cinnamon teal Anas cyanoptera in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w6).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild northern shoveler Anas clypeata in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w7).
  • Cestodes recorded in mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American wigeon Anas americana, green-winged teal Anas crecca, blue-winged teal Anas discors in Oklahoma (J1.16.w8).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild green-winged teal Anas crecca in southwest Texas, USA (J1.17.w6).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild Mexican ducks Anas platyrhynchos diazi (J1.22.w4).
  • Cestodes recorded in lesser snow goose Anser caerulescens caerulescens goslings in Canada (J1.32.w1)
  • Cestodes recorded in wild Canada geese Branta canadensis wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4)
  • Gastrotaenia cygni recorded in the gizzards of northern pintail Anas acuta, green-winged teal Anas crecca, blue-winged teal Anas discors, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, Gadwall Anas strepera, lesser scaup Aythya affinis, redheads Aythya americana, and northern shoveler Anas (spatula) clypeata (J5.13.w3).
  • Hymenolepis sp. incidental finding in the intestines of a ruddy-headed goose Chloephaga rubidiceps in a UK collection (J7.3.w1).
  • Anseranas semipalmata - Magpie goose (Hymenolepis megalops),Dendrocygna fulva - Fulvous whistling-duck, Dendrocygna javanica - Lesser whistling-duck (Hymenolepis coronula), Dendrocygna viduata - White-faced whistling-duck, Anser anser - Grey-lag goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis compressa' Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anser albifrons - Greater white-fronted goose (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula' Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris), Anser caerulescens - Snow goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata), Anser canagica - Emperor goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata), Anser cygnoides - Swan goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anser cygnoides domesticus - Chinese goose (Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anser erythropus - Lesser white-fronted goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anser fabalis - Bean goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata), Anser indicus - Bar-headed goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata), Branta bernicla - Brent goose (Hymenolepis lanceolata), Branta canadensis - Canada goose (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata), Branta leucopsis - Barnacle goose, Branta ruficollis - Red-breasted goose (Hymenolepis coronula), Branta sandvicensis - Nene (Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Coscoroba coscoroba - Coscoroba swan (Hymenolepis megalops), Cygnus atratus - Black swan (Hymenolepis lanceolatas, Gastrotaenia cygni), Cygnus columbianus - Tundra swan (Hymenolepis lanceolata), Cygnus cygnus - Whooper swan (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata), Cygnus cygnus buccinator - Trumpeter swan (Echinostoma revolutum), Cygnus olor - Mute swan (Hymenolepis megalops, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Cygnus melanocoryphus - Black-necked swan (Hymenolepis megalops, Gastrotaenia cygni), Alopochen aegyptiacus - Egyptian goose (Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Chloephaga picta - Upland goose (Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Chloephaga poliocephala - Ashy-headed goose (Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Cyanochen cyanopterus - Blue-winged goose (Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Lophonetta specularioides - Crested duck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Neochen jubata - Orinoco goose (Hymenolepis coronula), Tadorna ferruginea - Ruddy shelduck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, ), Tadorna tadorna - Common shelduck (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Tadorna tadornoides - Australian shelduck, Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis tenuirostris, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa' Hymenolepis collaris, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Cotugnia fastigata, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas acuta - Northern pintail (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas americana - American wigeon (Hymenolepis megalops, Gastrotaenia cygni), Anas angustirostris - Marbled teal (Hymenolepis collaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas bahamensis - White-cheeked pintail (Hymenolepis coronula), Anas capensis - Cape teal (Hymenolepis coronula), Anas castanea - Chestnut teal (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas crecca - Common teal (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas cyanoptera - Cinnamon teal, Anas discors - Blue-winged teal [taken to be synonymous with Anas erythrorhyncha in this reference] (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas falcata - Falcated duck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas formosa - Baikal teal (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas georgica - Yellow-billed pintail (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula), Anas luzonica - Philippine duck (Diorchis nyrocae), Anas penelope - Eurasian wigeon (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas platalea - Red shoveler (Hymenolepis megalops), Anas poecilorhyncha - Spot-billed duck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas punctata - Hottentot teal (Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas querquedula - Garganey (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas rhynchotis - Australian shoveler, Anas rubripes - American black duck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas sibilatrix - Chiloe wigeon (Hymenolepis megalops), Anas specularis - Spectacled duck (Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas strepera - Gadwall (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Anas superciliosa - Pacific black duck (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Anas versicolor - Silver teal (Hymenolepis megalops, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Somateria fischeri - Spectacled eider (Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Somateria mollissima - Common eider (Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Somateria spectabilis - King eider (Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Aythya affinis - Lesser scaup (Hymenolepis coronula, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Aythya americana - Redhead, Aythya australis - Hardhead (Diorchis nyrocae), Aythya baeri - Baer's pochard, Aythya ferina - Common pochard (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Aythya fuligula - Tufted duck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Aythya marila - Greater scaup (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Aythya novaeseelandiae - New Zealand scaup (Hymenolepis coronula), Aythya nyroca - Ferruginous pochard (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Aythya valisineria - Canvasback (Hymenolepis compressa, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Netta erythrophthalma - Southern pochard (Hymenolepis megalops, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Netta peposaca - Rosy-billed pochard (Hymenolepis megalops), Netta rufina - Red-crested pochard (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Diorchis nyrocae), Aix galericulata - Mandarin duck (Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa), Aix sponsa - Wood duck, Amazonetta brasiliensis - Brazilian teal (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris) Cairina hartlaubi -Hartlaub's duck (Hymenolepis coronula, Diorchis nyrocae), Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Chenonetta jubata - Maned duck (Hymenolepis coronula), Nettapus pulchellus - Green pygmy-goose, Plectropterus gambensis - Spur-winged goose, Sarkidiornis melanotos - Comb duck (Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Bucephala clangula - Common goldeneye (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Bucephala islandica - Barrow's goldeneye (Hymenolepis coronula), Clangula hyemalis - Long-tailed duck (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Gastrotaenia cygni, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Histrionicus histrionicus - Harlequin duck (Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Melanitta fusca - White-winged scoter (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Melanitta nigra - Black scoter (Hymenolepis compressa, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Melanitta perspicillata - Surf scoter (Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Mergus albellus - Smew (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis tenuirostris, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Hymenolepis collaris, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Mergus cucullatus - Hooded merganser, Mergus merganser - Common merganser (Aploparaksis cucumerinum, Hymenolepis tenuirostris, Hymenolepis coronula, Hymenolepis compressa, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Mergus serrator - Red-breasted merganser (Hymenolepis tenuirostris, Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris), Mergus squamatus - Scaly-sided merganser, Biziura lobata - Musk duck, Oxyura jamaicensis - Ruddy duck (Gastrotaenia cygni), Oxyura leucocephala - White-headed duck (Hymenolepis megalops, Hymenolepis lanceolata, Hymenolepis coronula, Fimbriaria fasciolaris). (B91)

WATERFOWL Host Species List

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Disease / Agent has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:
  • Infection recorded in Greater Magellan (upland) geese Chloephaga picta leucoptera on the Falkland Islands, together with nematode infections of the gizzard and caecae (J7.33.w4).
  • In a wild mute swan Cygnus olor in the UK, associated with cold weather and a low food availability (J36.44.w1).
  • Recorded in Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, Canada goose Branta canadensis, redhead Aythya americana and Scaup, and appeared to be the primary cause of death in some juvenile Canada geese and a few mallard, USA (J4.99.w1).
  • Heavy infestation recorded in a wild tufted duck Aythya fuligula in the UK, which was also infected with Salmonella typhimurium and several nematodes (J3.70.w1).
  • Cestodes recorded in a wild Trumpeter swan Cygnus buccinator which also contained gizzard worms, acanthocephala and intestinal flukes (J14.11.w1).
  • Infestation with five cestode species recorded in a survey of endoparasites of the black-bellied whistling-duck Dendrocygna autumnalis in Texas, USA (J1.11.5).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild cinnamon teal Anas cyanoptera in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w6).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild northern shoveler Anas clypeata in southwest Texas, USA (J1.13.w7).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild green-winged teal Anas crecca in southwest Texas, USA (J1.17.w6).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild Mexican ducks Anas platyrhynchos diazi (J1.22.w4).
  • Cestodes recorded in wild Canada geese Branta canadensis wintering in Texas (J1.33.w4).
  • Cestodes recorded in mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American wigeon Anas americana, green-winged teal Anas crecca, blue-winged teal Anas discors in Oklahoma (J1.16.w8).
  • Cestodes recorded in lesser snow goose Anser caerulescens caerulescens goslings in Canada (J1.32.w1).
  • Various species, particularly Hymenolepis sp., found in free-flying waterfowl in British Columbia, Canada (J14.19.w1).

WATERFOWL Host Species List

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Environment/Geography

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality
  • Most common in open-water situations suitable for the intermediate hosts (B18).
  • Intermediate hosts in captive situations are usually eaten-out by waterfowl, thus removing the souce of infection (J8.17.w1)

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Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

Various species may be found worldwide (B24).

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Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

North America, Falkland Islands, Europe (J4.99.w1, J7.33.w4, J14.19.w1, J36.44.w1).

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General Investigation / Diagnosis

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis
WATERFOWL Ova or proglottids in excreta. Worms may be visible on cloacal examination (B11.39.w7, B13.46.w1, B16.19.w1, B37.x.w1).
Related Techniques
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Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)
WATERFOWL --

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Treatment and Control

Specific Medical Treatment
WATERFOWL
  • Praziquantel, intramuscular or subcutaneous, 10-20mg/kg body weight, repeated after ten days; Chlorsulon orally 20mg/kg body weight, given three times a week, at two-week intervals (B11.39.w7, B37.x.w1).
  • Niclosamide 250mg/kg body weight, oral -N.B. toxic to geese (B10.26.w11, B13.46.w1, B37.x.w1).
Related Techniques
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General Nursing and Surgical Techniques
WATERFOWL --
Related Techniques

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Preventative Measures
Vaccination WATERFOWL --
Prophylactic Treatment

WATERFOWL

 For information on routine parasite control see Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite screening and Routine Control Measures
Related Techniques
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Environmental and Population Control Measures
General Environment Changes, Cleaning and Disinfection

WATERFOWL

 --
Population Control Measures WATERFOWL --

 
Isolation, Quarantine and Screening WATERFOWL --
Related Techniques
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