Frostbite in Waterfowl (with notes on Elephants and Lagomorphs)

Disease Summary

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

Infective "Taxa"

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

• Accommodation construction
• Ice formation
• Temperature - extreme direct cold
• Temperature - low ambient

References

Disease Author

Lagomorphs: Nikki Fox BVSc MRCVS (V.w103)

Referees

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

In Elephants:
B64.27.w4, B214.3.7.w3

In Lagomorphs:
B608.21.w21

Other References

Code and Title List

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

General

Clinical Characteristics

• Usually affects the feet in waterfowl: Initially affected area cold and pale, then inflamed swelling (erythema and oedema) of webs and toes.
• Later affected webs become pale, and may become necrotic; there may be dry gangrene of the web and of one or more toes. May slough, losing areas of web and/or part or all of one or more toes.

(J1.28.w2, J4.155.w2, J7.15.w6, J23.13.w2, P4.1990.w2, P4.1992.w1, B10.26.w12, B11.36.w4, B13.46.w1, B20.14.w11)

• Usually affects the edges of the ears. (B64.27.w4)
• Sloughing of affected areas. (B214.3.7.w3)

• Erythema, acrocyanosis, necrosis, and sloughing are typically seen on the ears. (B608.21.w21)

Incubation

Mortality / Morbidity

Pathology

• Distinct zone of hyperaemia separating necrotic area from viable tissues (J1.28.w2).
• Vegetative valvular endocarditis may develop later (J4.155.w2).

Human Health Considerations

Disease has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

[N.B. Miscellaneous / Traumatic Diseases tend to be under-reported and the majority are likely to affect all waterfowl species, given exposure to the related disease agents/factors.]

• Swans, ducks and geese at St Louis Zoological Park, USA (J4.155.w2).
• Mallard Anas platyrhynchos - in severe winter weather in Saskatchewan, Canada (J1.28.w2).
• Common shelducks Tadorna tadorna - in severe winter weather in the UK (J7.15.w6)
• Red-billed (black-bellied) whistling duck Dendrocygna autumnalis and other whistling ducks Dendrocygna spp. (J7.33.w2).

In elephants:

• Frostbite has been reported in elephants (species not specified) exposed to severe cold. (B64.27.w4)
• Frostbite affecting the ears and prepuce has been recorded in a circus elephant. (B214.3.7.w3)

In Lagomorphs: 

• Frostbite has been reported in rabbits that have been suddenly exposed to a cold climate without a period of acclimatisation. (B608.21.w21)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken).

Host Species List

• Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard
• Dendrocygna autumnalis - Black-bellied whistling-duck
• Tadorna tadorna - Common shelduck

MAMMALS:

• Elephants (Elephantidae - Elephants (Family))
• Rabbits (Leporidae - Rabbits and Hares (Family))

Disease has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

• Mallard Anas platyrhynchos - in severe winter weather in Saskatchewan, Canada (J1.28.w2).
• Common shelducks Tadorna tadorna - in severe winter weather in the UK (J7.15.w6)

Further information on Host species has only been incorporated for species groups for which a full Wildpro "Health and Management" module has been completed (i.e. for which a comprehensive literature review has been undertaken).

Host Species List

• Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard
• Tadorna tadorna - Common shelduck

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

• Inadequate shelter and heat.
• Associated with below-freezing temperatures in winter and waterfowl having to stand and roost on snow and ice.

(J4.155.w2, B11.36.w4, B13.16.w11, B15)

• In elephants, frostbite may occur when the animal is subjected to severe cold. (B64.27.w4, B214.3.7.w3)
  • it has been suggested that temperatures below 20 °C, with wind-chill, are required to produce frostbite in the elephant. (B214.3.7.w3)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• History and Documentation - General
• Physical Examination - General
• Physical Examination of Mammals
• Necropsy - General
• Necropsy of Mammals
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

• Occasionally, rabbits are seen with ear pinna necrosis which may look similar to that seen in frostbite. Sometimes this is associated with intravenous or intra-arterial access (See: Iatrogenic Segmental Ear Gangrene in Elephants and Lagomorphs). Other cases may be due to chewing of the ear tip by the mother or a sibling, of possibly due to injection of unidentified toxins affecting vascular supply. (V.w121)

Specific Medical Treatment

• Topical antibiotic cream (J23.13.w2, B20.14.w11).
• (Care should be taken with the use of petroleum-based ointments in waterbirds as they may disrupt waterproofing V.w6).
• Combination of systemic ibuprofen (a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) and topical application of aloe vera has been shown to reduce tissue loss in experimental animals and to reduce morbidity and length of stay in hospital in humans (B136.30.w1).

• Treatment and Care - General

General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

• Initial: rapid rewarming of affected areas in water bath at 39-42°C (102-107.6°C) (B136.30.w1)
• Maintain in clean environment while healing (J23.13.w2).
• Amputation of devitalized areas may be considered; however, conservative management is required until the demarcation between viable and non-viable tissue become clear ( P4.1992.w1, B136.30.w1).

• Treatment as for other species. (B64.27.w4)

• Treatment and Care - General

Preventative Measures

WATERFOWL

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Environmental and Population Control Measures

WATERFOWL

• House tropical species inside in freezing weather.
• Provide good dry bedding e.g. straw to stand on in outside pens in winter
• Provide windproof covers and screens.
• Ensure areas of water remain open.
• Increase water temperature if feasible, for example by using water from underground sources.
• Ensure good water hygiene.

(J7.15.w7, J23.13.w2, P4.1992.w1, B10.26.w12, B11.33.w1, B11.36.w4, B13.46.w1)

• Environmental and Population Management
• Accommodation Design for Birds - General
• Preventative Medicine for Birds - General
• Preventative Medicine for Mammals