Duck Plague

Disease Summary

Alternative Names (Synonyms)

• Duck virus enteritis
• DVE
• Anatid herpesvirus infection
• Avian herpesvirus type 2 infection
• Peste du canard
• L’entérite ŕ virus du canard
• Eendenpest
• Entenpest

Disease Type

Infectious/Non-Infectious Agent associated with the Disease

Infective "Taxa"

• Herpesviridae: Duck Enteritis Virus

Non-infective agents

Physical agents

References

Disease Author

Major References / Reviews

Code and Title List

Other References

Code and Title List

Detailed Clinical and Pathological Characteristics

General

Clinical Characteristics

• Onset acute or peracute. Death in less than one day up to five days.
• Carrier status may be established in survivors, usually without initial clinical illness. N.B. can excrete virus for up to four years (J5.24.w2).
• Course - No prolonged illness; frequently just see dead birds. Individuals of the most susceptible species tend to die first. Survival after clinical illness rare.
• Signs - Variable. May be found dead without previous signs of illness. May include: listlessness, lethargy, drooping wings, hypersensitivity to light (photophobia), extreme thirst (polydypsia), excessive watery ocular and/or nasal discharge (eyes may be stuck shut, feathers around eyes may be wet), bloody discharge from vent and/or nostrils, inappetance, laboured breathing, prolapsed penis in males, watery diarrhoea, reluctance to move, ataxia, head and neck trembling if made to move, terminal opisthotonus, convulsions. Decreased egg production (25-40%) noted in commercial flocks.
• In two- to seven-week-old 'market' domestic ducklings, dehydration, weight loss, blue bill and frequently blood-stained vent.
• IN CARRIERS: may see erosive/ulcerative ‘cold sore’ lesion under tongue (at opening of sublingual salivary gland). Lesion is transient/recurring (J5.24.w2.

(J3.90.w2, J3.126.w1, J4.152.w1, J5.12.w2, J6.15.w1, J35.117.w1, P3.1990-1992.w2, B10.26.w4, B11.39.w7, B12.55.w1, B13.46.w1, B14, B15, B16.19.w1, B18, B32.26.w5, B36.16.w16, B37.x.w1, B48.3.w3)

Incubation

Mortality / Morbidity

Pathology

Pathology: N.B. Not all lesions in all cases:

• Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) - May be free blood or serosanguinous fluid in lumen or blood-stained GIT contents.
• Buccal cavity - whitish plaques in pharynx occasionally.
• Oesophagus - petechial to ecchymotic haemorrhages; necrotic/diphtheritic/cheesy membranous lesions along longitudinal folds on mucosal surface if slightly longer course, particularly caudal oesophagus (common in swans).
• Proventriculus - focal mucosal haemorrhage and/or necrosis.
• Gizzard - haemorrhage.
• Intestines - Haemorrhagic enteritis. Variable extent, from petechiation and small ulcers (e.g. in jejunum) to haemorrhagic/necrotic annular rings (ducks) or discs (‘button ulcers’) (geese, swans) in intestines (related to lymphoid tissue distribution) in ileum.
• Caecae - separated macular lesions between mucosal folds (external surface may appear barred, congested).
• Cloaca - mucosal haemorrhages, later necrotic/diphtheritic/cheesy membranous lesions as in oesophagus.
• Meckle’s diverticulum - may be haemorrhagic, may contain fibrinous core.
• Cardiovascular system - petechiae to paintbrush haemorrhages on surface, particularly at base and in coronary grooves (common) or in myocardium. May be particularly visible on pericardial fat.
• Liver - Pinpoint haemorrhages (petechiae) and/or focal necrosis. May be swollen, friable, pale (copper coloured).
• Pancreas: petechiae.
• Peritoneum: petechiae sometimes seen.
• Mesentery: petechiae sometimes seen.
• Thymus & bursa of Fabricius: (young birds) haemorrhages, surrounding tissues oedematous
• Spleen: congestion, contraction, dark.
• Lungs: sometimes oedema.
• Ovary: congestion and haemorrhage of follicles, associated haemorrhage into body cavity, haemorrhage and necrosis in oviduct lumen.
• N. B. Young birds may not show typical lesions but usually see haemorrhagic enteritis, congested liver & spleen. Whole mucosal surface of oesophagus may slough in young ducklings.

Histopathology:

• Focal haemorrhages in most organs.
• Liver - Necrosis of hepatocytes, with haemorrhage & limited heterophil infiltration. Occasionally areas caseous necrosis with surrounding coagulation necrosis.
• Lymphoid and epithelial tissues (including of gastro-intestinal tract, spleen, thymus, bursa of Fabricius) & bone marrow - necrosis & haemorrhage.
• Gastro-intestinal Tract - Necrosis of epithelial cells– may be in lumen (raised from surface by haemorrhage).
• Spleen - Focal coagulation necrosis, haemorrhage.
• Large eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies may be found in: hepatocytes, bile duct epithelial cells, epithelial cells of oesophagus, intestine & bursa of Fabricius, pancreatic cells, cells of Hassel’s corpuscles.
• Occasionally intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions in: epithelial cells of oesophagus, cloaca (J5.36.w1).

(J3.90.w2, J3.114.w1, J3.121.w1, J3.126.w1, J4.152.w1, J4.163.w1, J5.12.w2, J6.15.w1, J13.32.w1, J35.117.w1, P3.1990-1992.w2, B10.26.w4, B11.39.w7, B14, B15, B16.19.w1, B18, B32.26.w5, B36.16.w16, B37.x.w1, B48.3.w3)

Human Health Considerations

Disease / Agent has been reported in either the wild or in captivity in:

• White Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) on Long Island, New York, USA (J5.12.w2).
• Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus), muscovy ducks Cairina moschata, mute swans Cygnus olor, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American black duck Anas rubripes, greater scaup Aythya marila, bufflehead Bucephala albeola, Canada geese Branta canadensis, Long Island, New York area (J4.153.w1, J13.32.w1).
• Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American black ducks Anas rubripes, Canada geese Branta canadensis, Finger Lakes area, New York state. (B15, B36.16.w16)
• Mute swans Cygnus olor in the UK (J6.15.w1).
• Muscovy ducks Cairina moschata, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, 'swan' (Editor's note - probably mute swan Cygnus olor), Carolinas (wood ducks) Aix sponsa, (Eurasian) wigeon Anas penelope, (Common) shelduck Tadorna tadorna, Khaki Campbell ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) in the UK (J3.90.w2).
• Khaki Campbell, Indian runner and other domestic duck breeds (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) in India (J12.40.w1, J12.40.w2, J12.40.w3).
• Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American black ducks Anas rubripes, American wigeon Anas americana, redheads Aythya americana, canvasbacks Aythya valisineria, common goldeneyes Bucephala clangula, common mergansers Mergus merganser, pintail-mallard hybrids (Anas platyrhynchos x Anas acuta), muscovy duck Cairina moschata, Canada geese Branta canadensis at Lake Andes, South Dakota - 1973 epizootic, USA (J1.33.w3).
• (American) Black ducks Anas rubripes and Canada geese Branta canadensis (J5.25.w2).
• Egyptian goose Alopochen aegyptiacus, Canada geese Branta canadensis, muscovy ducks Cairina moschata, mallard Anas platyrhynchos in Pennsylvania, USA(J5.19.w3).
• American black ducks Anas rubripes, wood ducks Aix sponsa, scaup Aythya spp., shelducks Tadorna spp., bufflehead Bucephala albeola, goldeneye Bucephala spp., Australian grey teal Anas (gibberifrons) gracilis, American wigeon (widgeon) Anas americana National Zoological Park, Washington D.C., USA (J4.169.w1).
• American black ducks Anas rubripes, lesser scaup Aythya affinis, ring-necked ducks Aythya collaris, green-winged teal Anas crecca, black-bellied whistling-duck (tree duck) Dendrocygna autumnalis in Wisconsin (J1.12.w2)
• Muscovy ducks Cairina moschata in Alberta, Canada (J1.12.w3).
• Muscovy ducks Cairina moschata, Pekin ducks Anas platyrhynchos domesticus, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American wigeon (Mareca) Anas americana, wood duck Aix sponsa, mandarin Aix galericulata, Canada goose Branta canadensis¸ Egyptian goose Alopochen aegyptiacus, black swan Cygnus atratus (Chenopsis atrata) in California, USA (J4.163.w1).
• Muscovy ducks Cairina moschata, Canada geese Branta canadensis, Egyptian goose Alopochen aegyptiacus in Quebec, Canada (J14.16.w1).
• Muscovy ducks Cairina moschata, mandarin ducks Aix galericulata, (Abyssinian) blue-winged goose Cyanochen cyanopterus, Canada goose Branta canadensis, (Cuban) West-Indian whistling-duck Dendrocygna arborea, common shelduck Tadorna tadorna, Philippine duck Anas luzonica, spur-winged goose Plectropterus gambensis, Northern shoveler Anas clypeata, Egyptian goose Alopochen aegyptiacus, Black swan Cygnus atratus, coscoroba swan Coscoroba coscoroba, Ross's snow goose Anser rossi, Carolina (wood duck) Aix sponsa, Meller's duck Anas melleri and domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) in the UK (J3.114.w1).
• CARRIER STATUS confirmed in naturally infected black ducks Anas rubripes and Canada geese Branta canadensis, also in experimentally infected (Northern) pintail Anas acuta, gadwall Anas strepera, wood duck Aix sponsa, Canada geese Branta canadensis and mallard Anas platyrhynchos (J5.24.w2).
• Commercial ducks and geese in the UK (J3.121.w1)
• Experimental infection: Blue-winged teal Anas discors, wood duck Aix sponsa, redhead Aythya americana, muscovy Cairina moschata, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, gadwall Anas strepera and Canada geese Branta canadensis (J1.32.w2).
• Experimental infection: Gargany Anas (Querquedula) querquedula, gadwall Anas strepera, Eurasian wigeon (widgeon) Anas (Mareca) penelope, tufted duck Aythya fuligula, (Northern) shoveler Anas (Spatula) clypeata, common pochard Aythya (Nyroca) ferina, shell duck (common shelduck) Tadorna tadorna, common eider Somateria mollisima, bean goose Anser fabalis, white-fronted goose Anser albifrons, mute swan Cygnus olor, muscovy duck Cairina moschata, wood duck Aix sponsa, also domestic ducks khaki Campbell, Indian runner and Pekin (all Anas platyrhynchos domesticus). N.B. (Northern) pintail Anas (Dafila) acuta and European (green-winged) teal Anas (Nettion) crecca seroconverted but showed no illness (J4.152.w1)
• Mute swan Cygnus olor, black swan Cygnus atratus, black-necked swan Cygnus melanocoryphus, white-fronted goose Anser albifrons, Canada goose Branta canadensis, Egyptian goose Alopochen aegyptiacus, common shelduck Tadorna tadorna, Muscovy duck Cairina moschata, wood duck Aix sponsa, mandarin Aix galericulata, American wigeon Anas americana, canvasback Aythya valisineria, redhead Aythya americana, ring-necked duck Aythya collaris, tufted duck Aythya fuligula, greater scaup Aythya marila, common eider Somateria mollisima, bufflehead Bucephala albeola, common goldeneye Bucephala clangula, goosander (common merganser) Mergus merganser (B12.55.w1).
• Antibodies detected in common (green-winged) teal Anas crecca, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, northern shoveler Anas clypeata, red-crested pochard Netta rufina in Spain (J5.38.w3).

WATERFOWL Host Species List

• Aix galericulata - Mandarin duck
• Aix sponsa - Wood duck
• Alopochen aegyptiacus - Egyptian goose
• Anas acuta - Northern pintail
• Anas americana - American widgeon 
• Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler
• Anas crecca - Common teal
• Anas discors - Blue-winged teal
• Anas gracilis - Grey teal
• Anas luzonica - Philippine duck
• Anas melleri - Meller's duck
• Anas penelope - Eurasian widgeon
• Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard
• Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck
• Anas platyrhynchos x Anas acuta - Mallard-Northern pintail hybrid
• Anas querquedula - Garganey
• Anas rubripes - American black duck
• Anas strepera - Gadwall
• Anser albifrons - Greater white-fronted goose
• Anser anser domesticus - Domestic goose
• Anser fabalis - Bean goose
• Anser rossii - Ross's goose
• Aythya affinis - Lesser scaup
• Aythya americana - Redhead
• Aythya collaris - Ring-necked duck
• Aythya ferina - Common pochard
• Aythya fuligula - Tufted duck
• Aythya marila - Greater scaup
• Aythya valisineria - Canvasback
• Branta canadensis - Canada goose
• Bucephala albeola - Bufflehead
• Bucephala clangula - Common goldeneye
• Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck
• Coscoroba coscoroba - Coscoroba swan
• Cyanochen cyanopterus - Blue-winged goose
• Cygnus atratus - Black swan
• Cygnus melanocorypha - Black-necked swan
• Cygnus olor - Mute swan
• Dendrocygna arborea - West Indian whistling-duck
• Dendrocygna autumnalis - Black-bellied whistling-duck
• Mergus merganser - Common merganser
• Netta rufina - Red-crested pochard
• Plectropterus gambensis - Spur-winged goose
• Somateria mollissima - Common eider
• Tadorna tadorna - Common shelduck

Disease / Agent has been specifically reported in Free-ranging populations of:

• Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American black ducks Anas rubripes, Canada geese Branta canadensis (B15, B36.16.w16)
• Mute swans Cygnus olor, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American black duck Anas rubripes, greater scaup Aythya marila, bufflehead Bucephala albeola (J4.153.w1, J13.32.w1).
• Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, American black ducks Anas rubripes, American widgeon Anas americana, redheads Aythya americana, canvasbacks Aythya valisineria, common goldeneyes Bucephala clangula, common mergansers Mergus merganser, pintail-mallard hybrids (Anas platyrhynchos x Anas acuta, Canada geese Branta canadensis at Lake Andes, South Dakota - 1973 epizootic, USA (J1.33.w3).
• Antibodies detected in common (green-winged) teal Anas crecca, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, northern shoveler Anas clypeata, red-crested pochard Netta rufina in Spain (J5.38.w3).
• N.B. Reports in free-ranging populations are much less common than in confined waterfowl (B36.16.w16).

WATERFOWL Host Species List

• Anas americana - American widgeon
• Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard
• Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck
• Anas platyrhynchos x Anas acuta - Mallard-Northern pintail hybrid
• Anas rubripes - American black duck
• Aythya americana - Redhead
• Aythya marila - Greater scaup
• Aythya valisineria - Canvasback
• Branta canadensis - Canada goose
• Bucephala albeola - Bufflehead
• Bucephala clangula - Common goldeneye
• Cygnus olor - Mute swan
• Mergus merganser - Common merganser
• Netta rufina - Red-crested pochard

General Information on Environmental Factors/Events and Seasonality

• Mostly seen in spring (particularly UK, Netherlands); have been outbreaks all year.
• Generally in captive or feral flocks.
• Rare dramatic outbreaks in wild waterfowl in USA have occurred in winter with large numbers of waterfowl congregating in a small area.
• Apparent association with overcrowding.
• Wild or feral mallard (particularly in the UK) or other waterfowl have often been observed invading collections just prior to outbreaks.
• Strong association with water.
• Risk to commercial ducks and geese greatest in free-range or open field conditions with free access to open water, particularly if wild waterfowl common in the area.

(J3.114.w1, J3.121.w1, J3.121.w3, J3.126.w1, J5.19.w3, P3.1990-1991.w2, B10.26.w4, B11.39.w7, B13.46.w1, B15, B36.16.w16, B37.x.w1)

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded

• North America, Europe, Asia (J4.152.w1, B15, B36.16.w16).
• Including: Canada, USA, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, GB, Hungary, Netherlands, India, China, Thailand, Vietnam (J4.152.w1, J5.12.w2, J12.40.w1, J14.16.w1, B32.26.w5).

Regions / Countries where the Infectious Agent or Disease has been recorded in Free-ranging populations

General Information on Investigation / Diagnosis

• Acute disease affecting ONLY ducks, geese and swans. Always suspect when acute deaths in Anatidae occur where contact with wild waterfowl is observed or likely, particularly in spring (April - June in UK) (J3.121.w3, J3.126.w1).
• Always consider if waterfowl found dead with oesophageal and/or cloacal lesions (particularly diphtheritic), haemorrhagic enteritis, focal hepatic necrosis, general serosal haemorrhages (in combination or singly).
• In carriers: Ulcerative ‘cold sore’ lesion under the tongue. Virus may be isolated intermittently from oral/cloacal swabs. Samples on several occasions may be required (J5.24.w2).
• Clinical signs: No clinical signs are pathognomonic, but sudden deaths, initially of highly-susceptible species, and blood spots found under carcasses/where birds have been sitting, are suggestive.
• Post mortem: Haemorrhagic/necrotic annular rings (ducks) or discs (button ulcers) (geese, swans) in intestines, ; necrotic/diphtheritic/cheesy membranous lesions along longitudinal folds on mucosal surface of oesophagus and/or cloaca/lower intestine, large amounts of free blood in the digestive tract highly suggestive. Other lesions less specific.
• Histological examination: Eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions in hepatocytes. N.B. eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in epithelial cells also seen sometimes (J5.36.w1).
• Virus isolation: from fresh, chilled liver, spleen, kidney. Homogenized tissues are inoculated into embryonized duck eggs in specialist laboratories. Identification by virus neutralization, using known antiserum (J3.114.w1, J3.125.w1, B15).

N.B. Presumptive diagnosis from species affected (waterfowl only), gross and histopathological lesions. Final diagnosis requires virus isolation and identification. Samples for diagnosis: 1) Whole, fresh carcasses; or 2) liver and/or spleen sent to specialist laboratory for virus isolation (may be frozen).

(J3.121.w1, J3.121.w3, J4.163.w1, J13.32.w1, B10.26.w4, B11.39.w7, B14, B15, B16.19.w1, B18, B32.26.w5, B36.16.w16, B37.x.w1, B48.3.w3)

• Necropsy - General
• Treatment and Care - Euthanasia
• Chapter 2 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen Collection and Preservation
• Chapter 3 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Specimen shipment
• Chapter 5 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Euthanasia
• Appendix A - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Sample specimen history form

Similar Diseases (Differential Diagnosis)

• Avian Cholera (Avian Cholera). Other causes of acute death, particularly outbreaks, and other diseases producing haemorrhagic and necrotic lesions. Botulism (Avian Botulism) (but post mortem lesions easily differentiate), bacterial septicaemia, erysipelas (Erysipelothrix infection), anatipestifer infection (Anatipestifer Infection), coccidiosis (Intestinal coccidiosis), avian influenza (Avian Influenza) (rarely clinical disease in waterfowl), Newcastle disease (Newcastle Disease) (Rarely clinical disease in waterfowl), mycotoxins, phycotoxins. Pesticide poisoning (similarity of terminal convulsions).
• Duck viral hepatitis, goose hepatitis (Goose Parvovirus Infection), eastern equine encephalitis (Eastern Equine Encepalitis), leucocytozoon (Leukocytozoonosis) (all may be seen as outbreaks, in juveniles).

(B12.55.w1, B14, B15, B32.26.w5, B36.16.w16, B37.x.w1).

• Differential diagnosis for intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies: paramyxovirus (Newcastle Disease). Electron microscopy differentiates (J5.36.w1).

Specific Medical Treatment

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General Nursing and Surgical Techniques

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Preventative Measures

• Vaccination (live attenuated chicken-egg adapted virus) is effective. Provided protection rapidly (by as little as one day), due to interference phenomenon. e.g. Nobilis Duck Plague, Intervet UK Limited), consisting of freeze dried live attenuated duck plague virus and a diluent; may be used in health flocks of waterfowl, and may also be useful to limit the further spread of disease within an affected flock (B90).
• Live attenuated vaccine has been used in domestic waterfowl in India and in commercial, ornamental and domestic waterfowl in Europe and North America. Yearly vaccination may be used.
• Use of vaccination in free-living waterfowl is not recommended.

(J3.121.w1, B10.26.w4, B11.39.w7, B13.46.w1, B15, B32.26.w5, B36.16.w16, B37.x.w1, B90)

WATERFOWL

• Treatment and Care - Injection and Medication Techniques
• Preventative Medicine for Birds - General
• Preventative Medicine for Birds - Vaccination

Environmental and Population Control Measures

WATERFOWL

• Requires rapid response and aggressive actions to prevent spread and establishment. Primary objectives: minimize exposure of at-risk population at outbreak site and minimize virus in environment.
• Sanitation, disinfection and proper disposal of carcasses.
• Carcasses should be collected and incinerated, physical structures, litter etc. should be burned or decontaminated as for grounds. Ponds should be drained if possible. Dissemination of virus in free-flowing water should be avoided. Removal of birds from infected environment may be useful in the captive or domestic situation.
• N.B. Personnel and equipment used at outbreak sites should be decontaminated (chlorine bleach or phenol base disinfectants) before leaving the site to prevent mechanical spread of the virus to other waterfowl areas. Virus is instantly inactivated at pH3 and below and at pH11 and above. Waters may be decontaminated by chlorination (to 3ppm), grounds also by raising pH. Scrub concrete ponds with hypochlorite (5.25% solution).

PREVENTION

• In captive flocks: Flight netting pens to prevent wild/feral waterfowl flying in, where practical, particularly for very rare/endangered species. Limiting food/nesting sites available may discourage incoming birds where flight netting impractical.
• In birds for release: Waterfowl release programs should not use birds or eggs from flocks with a history of duck plague unless the flock has subsequently been shown by adequate testing and other technical assessments to be free of duck plague.
• Birds scheduled for release should be confined for at least 2 weeks before release. Birds dying during this period should be submitted to a qualified disease diagnostic laboratory.
• In wild waterfowl: Managers should not allow domestic waterfowl, especially muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck), on the area nor allow waterfowl display flocks that have not been certified free of duck plague.
• In commercial flocks: keep from contact with wild birds.

(J4.169.w1, P5.29.w1, B10.25.w4, B11.39.w7, B15, B18, B36.16.w16, B48.3.w3)

• Avoid overcrowding, as this appears to have been a factor in some outbreaks
• As the virus is spread in water, keeping birds off water (provide bowls of water) may reduce spread during an outbreak and is recommended as a possible control method for commercial flocks.
• Affected birds should be isolated and depopulation, with destruction of infected flocks, including eggs, is recommended when possible (e.g. when only few birds survive an outbreak), as survivors are likely to be carriers.

(J3.121.w1, J4.169.w1, P5.29.w1, P3.1990-1991.w2, B10.26.w4, B11.39.w7, B13.46.w1, B15, B32.26.w5, B36.16.w16, B48.3.w3)

• Preventative Medicine for Birds - General
• Treatment and Care - Euthanasia
• Environmental and Population Management - General
• Chapter 4 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Disease Control Operations
• Chapter 5 - B36 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases - Euthanasia