(Classification of bacterial species is an evolving discipline. The information in Wildpro has been carefully referenced to the source material, as far as possible. Readers requiring further clarification should consult the source materials and more recent publications. Classification information in Wildpro will be altered when clear and scientifically endorsed new information regarding taxonomic divisions becomes available to us.

This section is currently predominantly used in Wildpro to link different data types and demonstrate inter-relationships. It does not contain detailed information on the bacteria species itself.)

• There are six species "types" Clostridium botulinum of which each produce different Botulinum Toxins called: A, B, C, D, E, F. (B75)
• This species is a strict anaerobe. It is commonly isolated from soil, marine and lake sediments, animal, bird and fish intestines and in food (particularly improperly preserved vegetables, meat and fish). Endospores are widely but sporadically distributed in soils and aquatic environments throughout the world and germination occurs in anaerobic situations such as contaminated tins of food, animal carcasses and baled silage. (B21) (B75) (B88) (B47)
• The spores are highly resistant and may withstand boiling for 30 minutes to several hours. Most strains are killed by autoclaving at 120°C for 20 minutes.(B47)
• Clostridium botulinum and the ‘phage responsible for type C toxin production are widely available in the environment, with some places being heavily contaminated. Spores can survive in soil for many years. (J1.30.w4, J3.100.w1).
• Optimal bacterial growth occurs at 25-40C (particularly 30-37C). Both shallow water and the presence of decaying organic matter may increase the risk of botulism outbreaks, by increasing the temperature of water and sediments, and decreasing dissolved oxygen (P15, B36.38.w38).
• Bacterial growth also requires a nutrient source which provides certain essential amino acids which the bacterium cannot itself synthesize; this may be provided by the carcasses of invertebrates or vertebrates, also by raw sewage and rotting vegetation. Raw sewage, in addition to directly providing nutrients for bacterial growth may also precipitate a boom-and-bust- cycle of aquatic invertebrates and oxygen depletion, with resultant deaths of aquatic plants and animals (B36.38.w38).
• The presence of protein source, usually decaying organic matter (vegetation, decaying aquatic invertebrates, decaying vertebrates), is required for bacterial growth and toxin production. (P17.50.w1, B48.12.w12) Wetland flooding and draining can kill aquatic life, as may pesticides and other agricultural pollutants, thereby providing more substrate for toxin production. Other potential sources of energy for bacterial growth include raw sewage and rotting vegetation.
• Toxin production may continue in carcasses in relatively cold weather, as carcass temperature is often higher than air temperature; this may allow outbreaks to occur earlier than expected from the temperature in spring or later than expected in autumn (J1.19.w1, J1.20.w5, J1.24.w4, B36.38.w38) .
• Artificially increased water temperature, e.g. due to power station outputs, (thermal pollution) may assist in providing favourable conditions even in cold weather (P17.50.w1, B15)
• Specific microenvironmental features: The likelihood of botulism outbreaks is significantly influenced by pH, salinity, temperature, and oxidation-reduction potential in the sediments and water column. (B36.38.w38).
• Shallow stagnant water, alkalinity, large numbers of aquatic invertebrates and oxygen depletion associated with rotting vegetation, have been thought to be contributory, also the provision of dead aquatic invertebrates or waterfowl as a 'particularly favourable growth medium and microenvironment (J3.100.w1, J7.27.w1).

B10.26.w9, B13.46.w1

• A paralytic, frequently fatal disease, caused by ingestion of toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Death is usually from respiratory arrest, cardiac arrest or drowning.
• Outbreaks affecting thousands and even millions of birds have been recorded. This is probably the most important disease of migratory birds, on a world-wide basis.

• Aix galericulata - Mandarin duck
• Aix sponsa - Wood duck
• Alopochen aegyptiacus - Egyptian goose
• Anas acuta - Northern pintail
• Anas americana - American wigeon
• Anas castanea - Chestnut teal
• Anas clypeata - Northern shoveler
• Anas crecca - Common teal
• Anas cyanoptera - Cinnamon teal
• Anas discors - Blue-winged teal
• Anas gracilis - Grey teal
• Anas penelope - Eurasian wigeon
• Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard
• Anas platyrhynchos domesticus - Domestic duck
• Anas rubripes - American black duck
• Anas strepera - Gadwall
• Anas superciliosa - Pacific black duck
• Anser anser - Greylag goose
• Anser brachyrhynchus - Pink-footed goose
• Anser caerulescens - Snow goose
• Aythya affinis - Lesser scaup
• Aythya americana - Redhead
• Aythya collaris - Ring-necked duck
• Aythya ferina - Common pochard
• Aythya fuligula - Tufted duck
• Aythya marila - Greater scaup
• Aythya valisineria - Canvasback
• Branta canadensis - Canada goose
• Bucephala albeola - Bufflehead
• Bucephala clangula - Common goldeneye
• Cairina moschata - Muscovy duck
• Clangula hyemalis - Long-tailed duck
• Cygnus atratus - Black swan
• Cygnus olor - Mute swan
• Dendrocygna bicolor - Fulvous whistling-duck
• Lophodytes cucullatus - Hooded merganser
• Melanitta fusca - White-winged scoter
• Mergus merganser - Common merganser
• Oxyura jamaicensis - Ruddy duck
• Tadorna tadorna - Common shelduck

• Chloramphenicol (B75)
• Penicillin G (B75)
• Tetracycline (B75)
• Clindamycin (B75)
• Erythromycin (B75)
• Metronidazole (B75)
• Rifampin (B75)
• Clindamycin (B75)
• Cefoxitin (B75)
• Vancomycin (B75)

Types A and B are resistant to Cycloserine, sulfamethoxazole and Trimethoprim. (B75)

All types are resistant to:

• Nalidixic Acid (B75)
• Gentamycin (B75)

References for Bacterial Species

Species Author