UK BIRDS:

• When examining a wildlife casualty animal, as with any animal, it is important to be systematic.
• Bilateral structures should always be compared with one another for asymmetry.
• Remember that "common things occur commonly"; in wildlife casualties trauma (physical damage) is a common reason for presentation.

PULSE, HEART & RESPIRATION

• Heart rate may be measured by auscultation with a stethoscope.
• The pulse rate and the heart rate should be the same if the heart is functioning correctly to pump blood around the body.
• The heart/pulse rate is typically higher in smaller animals than in larger species, and higher in a bird of a given weight than a mammal of the same size.
• The heart/pulse rate is likely to be elevated in wildlife casualties due to stress.
• Respiratory rate is likely to be higher in restrained animals than in the same individual prior to restraint.
• Most birds have a very rapid heart rate - detection of abnormalities may require electrocardiogram at 100cm/minute paper speed.
• Short, faint inspiratory noise (breathing in) may be normal on auscultation with a stethoscope.
• Excessive respiratory noise (breathing generally) may be associated with a problem affecting the upper respiratory tract (e.g. gapeworm (Gapeworm Infection), tracheal aspergillus granuloma (Aspergillosis)) or severe air sac disease (e.g. Aspergillosis, Chlamydiosis / Psittacosis, bacterial respiratory infection).

SKIN & FEATHERS:

• Matted feathers (plumage) may indicate an underlying wound - this is not always directly under the matted area (B118.5.w5).
• Wounds in birds which are heavily contaminated with feather debris may have been caused by air gun pellets and therefore require radiographic (x-ray) evaluation.
• Careful examination for puncture wounds should be made in all casualties with a history of possible cat attack. In small garden birds (passerines) it is particularly common for bite wounds to be located on the bird's chest underneath the wings.
• Check the skin around the neck and abdomen of all animals with a history of possible release from a snare or other ligature. Injuries may appear slight on presentation but wound breakdown caused by pressure necrosis can occur in the few days following snare removal and the casualty should be kept in care during this period. See: Foreign Body Entanglement and Snaring.
• Check for the presence of external parasites: mites, fleas, ticks, lice, fly eggs/maggots.
  • Large numbers of parasites such as lice may be indicative of general debility. See: Lice Infection.
  • When maggots are present on the surface they may also be present under the skin and deep into the animal. If fly eggs or developed maggots are found on the skin of the animal it is critically important to check all the orifices and wounds for maggots. It is particularly important to check carefully for fly eggs/maggots in the warmer months as this is when fly-strike is most likely to be seen. See: Myiasis (Fly strike).
• Examine the plumage for "fret / stress marks", retained feather sheaths and white feathering which may indicate general debility.
• Be sure to differentiate abnormal feather loss from the normal areas of skin that have no / few feathers present. The distribution of these featherless tracts varies between species, however they are bilaterally symmetrical in distribution.
• Check for the evidence of an active "brood patch" (bald area with no feathers over the abdomen used for incubation) for casualties which present during the breeding season which may imply that the bird is currently brooding eggs or chicks. 
• Assess the plumage to determine whether a bird is in moult. This may have implication for casualty management and release e.g. oiled seabird.
• Always check the underside of the wings of waterfowl, particularly swans, which have a history of crash-landing or collisions with power cables for evidence of wounds, burns or charred plumage.

HEAD & NECK:

General:

• Note any flesh wounds - punctures, lacerations, scalping. See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds
• General pallor of the skin and mucous membranes may be seen with blood loss and anaemia.
• Flaky white thickened skin and feather/hair loss on the face may indicate ringworm infection in birds See: Favus.
• Note any masses which may be neoplastic.

Bill / Mouth:

• Bill of birds should be shiny and meet evenly when closed. Poor beak / bill condition may be caused by trauma, parasitic disease, inadequate nutrition, poor incubation conditions.
• Note any external crusty lesions around the bill or cere of birds.
  • e.g. white and flaky with Cnemidocoptes mite infection, brown and crusty with avian pox infection (Avian Pox).
• Nostrils should be clean and open; check for discharge, occlusion, rhinoliths (solid discharge ("plug") in the nasal apparatus). A small amount of transparent serous nasal discharge in waterfowl is a normal finding.
  • Note that some bird species do not have external nostrils e.g. Morus bassanus - Northern gannet.
• Mouth should be opened and checked for plaques, discoloration or necrotic areas. Oral plaques are particularly common in birds of prey, pigeons and doves (Columbidae). A number of diseases can cause oral lesions including Trichomoniasis ("Canker", "Frounce"), candidiasis (see: Candidiasis in Waterfowl), Avian Pox and Capillariasis. Diagnosis of the condition requires examination of a direct wet smear and stained preparation of the lesion.
• Always check underneath the tongue (frenulum) and the commissures of the mouth for evidence of fishing line, in all water birds but particularly waterfowl.
• Check waterfowl for halitosis (foul breath) which can occur secondary to gastro-intestinal impaction caused by lead poisoning. See: Lead poisoning
• Check the back of the throat for foreign bodies or parasites, e.g. capillaria adult worms are often seen in tawny owls. See: Capillariasis
• Check for the presence of fly eggs/maggots. See: Myiasis (Fly strike)

Eye & Periorbital Area:

• Eyes should be shiny and and the iris round.
• The eye may appear dull and sunken in dehydrated animals.
• Note whether the shape and degree of protrusion of the eyeball is similar for the two eyes.
• Matting of plumage around the eyes may indicate increased ocular discharge (epiphora) caused by irritation, trauma or infection.
• Check for inflammation of the eyelids and conjunctiva, e.g. due to the presence of a foreign body.
• Check for swelling (unilateral or bilateral) just above/below the eye in birds which may be caused by sinusitis, seen with e.g. various respiratory infections.
• Check for the presence of fly eggs/maggots. See: Myiasis (Fly strike)
• Check for the presence of surface lesions. Corneal scratches and ulcers can be identified using fluorescein dye in and birds. 
• Note any difference in size and in reaction to light between the pupils (anisocoria).
• Parasites (leeches, eye fluke, eye worm) may be present. Leeches are most commonly found beneath the third eyelid of larger waterfowl. (See: Ocular nematode infection, Ocular fluke infection, Leech infection)
• Complete ophthalmic examination may be carried out and should always be performed in casualty birds of prey where visual deficits caused by retinal pathology deficits may be an important reason for presentation:
  • This is particularly important in individuals known or thought to have been involved in a collision with a vehicle or a solid object when pecten haemorrhage (bleeding) commonly occurs.

Ear:

• Problems are rarely noted in birds, but they should be checked for polyps, neoplastic lesions, infection and haemorrhage following concussive trauma.

Neck:

• Palpate carefully for any generalised or localised swelling of the oesophagus. In waterfowl, fishing tackle and line within the oesophagus can trap any vegetation eaten leading to partial or complete obstruction of the food passage. These birds may also have halitosis, saliva drooling from their mouths and make repeated and laboured attempts to swallow. Anglers' hooks caught within the ingested vegetation may tear the oesophagus as the build up of vegetation forces the hook further down the neck. Careful passage of a lubricated stomach tube is useful to determine whether the swelling is located within the lumen of the oesophagus. If no obstruction to the passage of the stomach tube is detected beyond the distension of the neck, it is probable that the oesophagus has been torn and that food material has collected in the soft tissue of the neck causing a cellulitis. This type of condition would have a poor prognosis. See: Hook and Line Injuries in Waterfowl.
• Palpate carefully for anglers' hooks which may be present within the oesophagus of waterfowl.
• Palpate the crop of birds (not present as a structure distinguishable from the oesophagus in all species and absent in some groups including owls). Determine whether the bird has fed recently which is particularly important when dealing with fledglings and juvenile birds. Casualty birds of prey can present with "sour crop" where crop emptying is delayed, often as a consequence of general debility. The crop contents are typically soft/fluid and malodorous and urgent treatment with emptying of the rancid crop contents is required. Further examination of the oesophagus and crop by endoscopy may be needed - this may require general anaesthesia.
• Localised or generalised emphysematous swelling may be seen with damage to the cervical air sac in birds.
• Check carefully for hidden injuries due to e.g. snares (see: Foreign Body Entanglement and Snaring), as well as for the presence of lacerations and puncture wounds (see: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds).

WINGS AND/OR LEGS & FEET:

• Palpate and manipulate wings and legs carefully for fractures or dislocations. (See: Impact Injury and Brachial Paralysis)
  • Check the whole length of each long bone.
  • Palpate and manipulate each joint.
  • Check for deviation, normal range of motion, crepitus ("crunching" sensation) and instability.
• Wings should be examined one at a time, while the other wing is kept restrained with the body. The wing being examined should always be handled using the elbow and wrist (carpus) as anchor points; damage to the wing may occur if the handler restrains the wing only from its tip (metacarpal and phalanges) and the bird struggles and flaps.
• With experience, gentle palpation of the clavicle and coracoid bones in the thoracic inlet of birds is possible. Manipulation of coracoid fractures should be undertaken with care as there is an associated risk of bone fragments damaging blood vessels leading to serious haemorrhage from the mouth (haemoptysis). If a fracture is suspected radiography should be used to establish the extent of the injury. (See: Impact Injury)
• Legs should be palpated and manipulated one at a time, while the other legs is kept restrained, particularly in long-legged species.
• Legs should also be held out together and compared for symmetry.
• Care should be taken when examining the legs and feet of birds of prey to avoid "taloning" of the handler and the bird itself.
• Inspect featherless areas for damage e.g. to scales. Check any leg rings are correctly fitting and there is no associated trauma.
• Note any discoloured areas (pale and cold, reddened and swollen or dry and necrotic) which may indicate e.g. frostbite (Frostbite).
• Inspect the plantar surface of feet for bumblefoot lesions (Bumblefoot), particularly in birds of prey and waterfowl.
• Check for joint swellings indicative of articular gout (Gout), arthritis etc.
• Check the area above the hock in waterfowl for evidence of entangled fishing line which commonly lodges here and can act as a tourniquet, reducing blood supply to the limb. See: Hook and Line Injuries in Waterfowl.

BODY:

• Palpate body gently for any surface masses.
• Check major muscle masses (e.g. pectoral muscles in birds) are symmetrical.
• Check for evidence of possible air sac injury (air-filled swelling, palpable under the skin particularly in the neck region). See: Air Sac Injury
• Examine abdomen for signs of generalised distension (e.g. ascites, obesity, haemorrhage) or localised masses (e.g. retained egg (see: Egg Binding in Waterfowl and Egg Peritonitis in Waterfowl), neoplasm (see: Neoplasia in Waterfowl), abscess etc.).
  • In a normal bird the gizzard may be palpable; in a normal mammal the kidneys may be palpable.
  • Enlarged liver (hepatomegaly) may be palpable and is an abnormal finding.
• On abdominal palpation assess whether the abdomen/ gastro-intestinal system feels empty indicating that the casualty has not fed for some time prior to presentation.
• Check around cloaca for the presence of fly eggs/maggots. See: Myiasis (Fly strike)

Radiography is particularly useful with small animals that are difficult to examine, and should often be used as a routine part of examination.

Examination of faeces, haematology and other clinical samples is also often an important part of diagnosis.

(B11.2.w16,B11.3.w10, B13.8.w20, B14, V.w5, V.w26)

Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Bird of Prey Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Accipitridae, Falconidae, Strigidae, Tytonidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Road traffic accident: (See also: Impact Injury in Waterfowl)
  • Injuries may include wing fractures, leg fractures, head trauma, eye injuries (pecten haemorrhage).
• Window-collision: 
  • Head trauma (concussion);
  • Sometimes coracoid fractures (characteristic abnormal wing posture may be seen with the wing held tip pointing upwards);
  • Particularly seen in sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus - Eurasian sparrowhawk).
  • Birds with suspected coracoid fractures should be handled carefully since bone ends may lacerate internal vessels leading to serious haemorrhage from the mouth.

  (V.w26)

• Lacerations from being caught on barbed wire fences. See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds.
  • Injuries are most common on the underside of the wing.
  • Prognosis varies with the severity of the wounds, whether the propatagial membrane and ligament is intact (leading edge of the wing which is important in flight), the degree of soft tissue contamination and desiccation at the site.
  • Birds may be found caught on barbed wire from which they must be carefully removed. In many cases where the bird is impaled on the wire and the feathers have become tightly wrapped around the wire it may be preferable to cut the wire and take it along with the bird into care. The wire can then be safely removed with the bird under general anaesthesia. 
  • The bird will typically struggle in an attempt to release itself and may cause damage to the feathers as they become wrapped around the wire and may also damage the muscles to the upper wing.

  (V.w26)

• Eye injuries (e.g. associated with collision injuries).
  • Check for pecten haemorrhage. (V.w26)
• Shooting injuries (particularly Buteo buteo - Common buzzard and Falco peregrinus - Peregrine falcon).(B199)
  • These are usually associated with lead pellets rather than air gun pellets. X-rays should be taken to confirm diagnosis and labelled appropriately, as birds may be protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and prosecution may follow. 

  (V.w6, V.w26)

• Injuries associated with falling down chimneys (e.g. Strix aluco - Tawny owl, Athene noctua - Little owl).
  • Assessment for dehydration should be made and rehydration electrolyte fluids administered when necessary by gavage tube. 
  • The eyes of these birds should be flushed with sterile saline to remove as much soot contamination as possible and the surface of the cornea should be examined for scratches using fluorescein dye. Anti-inflammatory and antibiotic ocular ointments may be indicated.

  (V.w26)

• Illegal pole trap injuries (to legs). (B199)
• Mobbed by corvids - crows, jays, magpies etc. (Corvidae). Affected birds typically have feather loss around the head and eyes.(V.w26)
• Diseases:
  • Gapeworm Infection (B156.16.w16)
  • Trichomoniasis  ("frounce"). (V.w26)
  • Helminth infections;
  • Avian pox (B197.8.w8), usually dry form and self limiting.
  • Capillariasis
  • Aspergillosis (may be triggered by stress). (B156.16.w16)
    • Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos - Golden eagle) is particularly susceptible. (B156.16.w16).
  • Candidiasis: (Further information on candidiasis is available in Candidiasis in Waterfowl)
    • Caseous or necrotic material in the mouth or crop.
    • Affected individuals may vomit and may show respiratory signs.
    • Treat with itraconazole (10mg/kg oral syrup once daily for 7-10 days) or ketoconazole (5mg/kg oral twice daily for five days). (B156.16.w16)
  • Lead poisoning. (B156.16.w16) (Further information on lead poisoning is available in Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl)
  • Bumblefoot. (B156.16.w16)
    • This is rare in wild birds but may occur associated with pre-existing injury to one or both feet. (B197.8.w8)
    • May occur following self-inflicted talon injuries (B197.8.w8), which are most likely to occur during capture and handling if the feet are not restrained properly. (V.w6)
    • May occur in casualties being rehabilitated if incorrect perches are provided. (B197.8.w8)
  • Metabolic Bone Disease: 
    • Seen occasionally in wild common buzzards (Buteo buteo - Common buzzard). (V.w26)
    • Recognised as a major problem in hand-reared chicks fed an unbalanced, meat-only diet.
  • Louse flies (Hippoboscidae family) are common external parasites in buzzards (Buteo buteo - Common buzzard). (V.w26)
  • "Sour crop" may be seen in weak/diseased birds in which the crop does not empty properly and the contents putrefy.
• Orphans and unsuccessful juveniles:
  • Generally present with hypothermia, dehydration and extreme weight loss. (J23.23.w2).
  • Starvation may be seen in sub-adult kestrels in the autumn.
• Tawny owlets (Strix aluco - Tawny owl) normally leave the nest some considerable time before fledging and juveniles at or near ground level are commonly mistakenly identified as orphans. See: Hand-rearing of Birds of Prey

(B151, B156.16.w16, B197.8.w8, B199, D24, V.w6, V.w26)

Other important diseases:

• Coccidiosis (recognised to be important in captive birds of prey, particularly merlins (Falco columbarius - Merlin). (J3.141.w3)
  • (Further information on coccidiosis is available in Coccidiosis in Waterfowl).

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Crow, Jay, Magpie etc. Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Corvidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Trauma from road traffic accidents, shot injuries. (See also: Impact Injury in Waterfowl). This can result in:
  • concussion (frequently occurs).
  • leg fractures.
  • wing fractures.
  • spinal trauma with bilateral limb paralysis.
• Syngamus trachae infection (Gapeworm Infection).
• Coccidiosis (Further information on coccidiosis is available in Coccidiosis in Waterfowl).
• White feathering.
  • Juvenile corvids, particularly carrion crows, commonly present with patchy white plumage particularly affecting their flight and tail feathers. These birds often have a large number of “stress” or “fret” marks over the feathers that are points of weakness where these feathers may break.
  • In addition these birds often, but not invariably, present in poor body condition with high internal (coccidiosis and Syngamus trachae) and external parasite burdens (mites).
  • The aetiology of this condition is unknown although suggestions include nutritional deficiencies and agricultural chemical toxicity.
  • Some centres keep these birds until they pass through their next moult whilst others assess birds and euthanase severely affected individuals. 

  (V.w26, B151)

• "Orphans": e.g. juvenile crows and rooks which have fallen out of trees while able to wing flap but not to fly and which may require hand-rearing.
  • Corvus corone - Carrion crow may leave the nest but still be being fed by their parents. (B151)
  • Corvus frugilegus - Rook chicks may not be fed once on the ground and therefore may need to be hand-reared.(V.w27)

  See: Hand-rearing Crows, Jay, Magpie etc.

• Juveniles with deformed legs (probably metabolic bone disease). (See also: Splay Leg in Waterfowl)
  • Deformity may be severe and therefore require euthanasia.
• Corvus monedula - Eurasian jackdaw after falling down chimneys.
• Mobbed by other corvids.
  • Typically have feather loss around the head and eyes.(V.w26)
• Mite infestation is common. (B151, V.w26)
  • May be treated with ivermectin (Ivomec Pour-on, Merial Animal Health) dose suggested of 0.1ml per bird on the skin on the back of the neck.(B151)

(D24, B118.17.w17, B151)

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Game Bird Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Phasianidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Trauma from road traffic accidents, shot injuries. (See also: Impact Injury in Waterfowl). This can result in:
  • concussion (frequently occurs).
  • leg fractures.
  • wing fractures.
  • spinal trauma with bilateral limb paralysis.
• Gapeworm infection
• Young pheasant "poults" that have been recently released onto shooting estates may be thin / emaciated due to changes in feeding regimes, or inability to find food; they may also have superficial injuries, such as scalping (See also: Scalping in Waterfowl) due to transport and recent accommodation in release pens. (V.w6)
• In late winter / early Spring, emaciated adult birds may be seen as supplementary feeding is stopped at the end of the shooting season. (V.w6)

N.B. “Beak clipping” where the tip of the beak is removed is a management technique of farmed game birds and should not be mistaken as a result of trauma in the wild.(B151)

(D24, B151, B199, V.w6, V.w26)

Other important diseases:

• Helminthiasis including Trichostrongylosis (which is particularly important in Red grouse (Lagopus lagopus - Willow ptarmigan) in Scotland).
• Infectious sinusitis (usually Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection, See also: Mycoplasma Infection in Waterfowl).
• Newcastle Disease

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Garden Birds etc. (Small Passerines) Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

• Waxwings, Dippers, Treecreepers, Thrushes, Starlings, Flycatchers, Chats, Nuthatch, Wren (Bombycilla garrulus - Bohemian waxwing, Certhia familiaris - Eurasian tree-creeper, Cinclus cinclus - White-throated dipper, Erithacus rubecula - European robin, Ficedula hypoleuca - European pied flycatcher, Luscinia megarhynchos - Common nightingale, Muscicapa striata - Spotted flycatcher, Oenanthe oenanthe - Northern wheatear, Phoenicurus ochruros - Black redstart, Phoenicurus phoenicurus - Common redstart, Saxicola rubetra - Whinchat, Saxicola torquata - Common stonechat, Sitta europea - Wood nuthatch, Sturnus vulgaris - Common starling, Troglodytes troglodytes - Winter wren, Turdus iliacus - Redwing, Turdus merula - Eurasian blackbird, Turdus philomelos - Song thrush, Turdus pilaris - Fieldfare, Turdus torquatus - Ring ouzel, Turdus viscivorus - Mistle thrush

  • These species are from the families Bombycillidae, Certhiidae, Cinclidae, Sittidae, Muscicapidae, Sturnidae.

• Tits, Goldcrest, Warblers, Acrocephalus palustris - Marsh warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus - Sedge warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus - Eurasian reed-warbler, Aegithalos caudatus - Long-tailed tit, Locustella naevia - Common grasshopper-warbler, Panurus biarmicus - Bearded parrotbill, Parus ater - Coal tit, Parus caeruleus - Blue tit, Parus cristatus - Crested tit, Parus montanus - Willow tit, Parus major - Great tit, Parus palustris - Marsh tit, Phylloscopus collybita - Common chiffchaff, Phylloscopus sibilatrix - Wood warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus - Willow warbler, Regulus ignicapillus - Firecrest, Regulus regulus - Goldcrest, Sylvia atricapilla - Blackcap, Sylvia borin - Garden warbler, Sylvia communis - Greater whitethroat, Sylvia curruca - Lesser whitethroat, Sylvia undata - Dartford warbler)

  • These species are from the families Aegithalidae, Paridae, Regulidae, Sylviidae

• Larks, Sparrows & Wagtails: Anthus petrosus - Rock pipit, Anthus pratensis - Meadow pipit, Anthus spinoletta- Water pipit, Anthus trivialis - Tree pipit, Alauda arvensis - Eurasian skylark, Eremophila alpestris - Horned lark, Lullula arborea - Wood lark, Motacilla alba - White wagtail, Motacilla cinerea - Grey wagtail, Motacilla flava - Yellow wagtail, Passer domesticus - House sparrow, Passer montanus - Eurasian tree sparrow, Prunella modularis - Hedge accentor)

  • These species are from the families Alaudidae, Passeridae

• Finches, Siskins, Linnets, Crossbills, Buntings: Calcarius lapponicus - Lapland longspur, Carduelis cannabina - Eurasian linnet, Carduelis cardualis - European goldfinch, Carduelis chloris - European greenfinch, Carduelis flammea - Common redpoll, Carduelis flavirostris - Twite, Carduelis spinus - European siskin, Coccothraustes coccothraustes - Hawfinch, Emberiza cirlus - Cirl bunting, Emberiza citrinella - Yellowhammer, Emberiza schoeniclus - Reed bunting, Fringilla coelebs - Chaffinch, Fringilla montifringilla - Brambling, Loxia curvirostra - Red crossbill, Loxia scotica - Scottish crossbill, Miliaria calandra - Corn bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis - Snow bunting, Pyrrhula pyrrhula - Eurasian bullfinch)

  • These species are from the family Fringillidae

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Cat bites. (See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds) Injuries may include:
  • Lacerations, particularly over the rump.
  • Puncture wounds, particularly common under the wings over the “chest” area.
  • Wing fractures.

  (V.w26)

• Trauma from road traffic accidents. (See also: Impact Injury in Waterfowl). This can result in:
  • concussion (frequently occurs).
  • leg fractures.
  • wing fractures.
  • spinal trauma with bilateral limb paralysis.
• Concussion after flying into windows.
• Entanglement in e.g. fruit netting/string.(B151) See: Foreign Body Entanglement and Snaring
• Gapeworm Infection (Syngamus trachae) (particularly common in fledgling blackbirds).
• Cnemidocoptes mite infection of the feet in finches.
• Idiopathic emphysema in nestlings.
• (D24)
• Fractures, particularly bill fractures in blackbirds and leg fractures in robins.(B151)

(D24, D48, B151, B199, V.w26)

Other important diseases:

• Group and individual diseases which may be significant include:
  • Salmonellosis
  • Yersiniosis
  • Pasteurellosis
  • Chlamydiosis/Psittacosis
  • Colibacillosis
  • Avian pox
  • Viral papillomas of Fringilla Species

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Grebe & Diver (Loon) Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Podicipedidae, Gaviidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Fishing line injuries. See: Hook and Line Injuries in Waterfowl
• Birds which have landed in the wrong place (off water) and are unable to take off again.
• Birds mistakenly thought to have injured legs. These species have legs placed far back on the body and therefore are normally unable to walk, or have difficulty in walking on land.
• Oiling; severely oiled birds may need washing and rehabilitation. (See: Oiling in Waterfowl)

(B151, V.w26)

Other important diseases:

• Keel Lesions
• Aspergillosis
• Cloacal Impaction: in birds kept off water.

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Gull & Tern Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the family Laridae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Avian Botulism

  • Clinical signs include generalised flaccid paralysis.

  N.B. the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and the Environment Agency should be informed if large numbers of paralysed gulls or dying birds are found, giving the location and the number of birds involved.

• Foreign bodies such as sea fishing tackle. See: Hook and Line Injuries in Waterfowl
• Shot gun pellet injuries.
• Oiling; oiled seagulls which are able to fly and feed will often survive without intervention. Severely oiled birds may need washing and rehabilitation. (Further information is available in Oiling in Waterfowl).
• Fractured wings from impact with e.g. wires.(B199)
• Alphachlorolose poisoning.(B199)
• Angel wing in juvenile herring gull.(V.w26)
• Larus argentatus - Herring gull chicks commonly fall from their nest and present in seaside areas.

(D24, D29, B199, V.w26)

Other important diseases:

• Salmonellosis
• Colibacillosis
• Yersiniosis
• Chlamydiosis/Psittacosis

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Miscellaneous Bird Considerations (Kingfisher, Cuckoo, Woodpeckers, Wrynecks)
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Alcedinidae, Cuculidae, Picidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Cat bites.
• Head trauma e.g. concussion or bill damage.
  • Commonly seen after birds have flown into windows.

(B151, V.w26)

Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Pigeon & Dove Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the family Columbidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Trichomoniasis ("Canker"). 
  • Caseous oral lesions are seen. 
  • Examination of a fresh saline mounted preparation for diagnosis. 
  • Prophylaxis or treatment as required with Carnidazole (Spartrix, Harkers).
  • (B151, V.w26)
• Coccidiosis. (Further information on coccidiosis is available in Coccidiosis in Waterfowl).
  • Particularly common in wood pigeons. 
  • Clinical signs typically include emaciation and watery diarrhoea. (V.w26)
• Capillariasis.
• Cat bites (especially collared doves (Streptopelia decaocto - Eurasian collared-dove)).
  • See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds
• Trauma from road traffic accidents, shot injuries or collisions with windows. (See also: Impact Injury in Waterfowl). This can result in:
  • concussion (frequently occurs).
  • leg fractures.
  • wing fractures.
  • spinal trauma with bilateral limb paralysis.

  Particularly common in wood pigeons (Columba palumbas - Common wood-pigeon). Fractured coracoid and clavicle common. (V.w26)

• Exhaustion - racing pigeons.
• Ruptured crop.
  • This may occur following blunt trauma or a predator attack.
  • The crop and skin must each be sutured carefully and separately.
• Juvenile collared doves: a syndrome has been noted of unknown origin involving poor feather condition/growth and extremely poor bone mineralisation.Cartilaginous and easily deformed beak and keel, bowed tibiotarsi, retained feather sheaths and “stress/ fret” marks on the primary feathers are commonly seen as part of this syndrome.(B151, V.w26)
• Chlamydiosis/Psittacosis

(B151, D24, V.w26)

Other important diseases:

• Pigeon Paramyxovirus 1 (PMV-1).

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Seabird Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Laridae, Phalacrocoracidae, Procellariidae, Sulidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Oiling. (Further information is available in Oiling in Waterfowl)
• Windblown birds may be found inland - shearwaters, petrels, gannets, little auks and fulmars. Recently-fledged juveniles blown inland by storms commonly require rehydration and feeding prior to release at suitable coastal sites.(B197.15.w15)
• Birds accidentally landing on flat ground may be unable to re-launch. These birds can often be released immediately from a suitable elevated site.(B197.15.w15)
• Newly-fledged petrels and shearwaters confused by artificial lights into heading inshore rather than out to sea after emergence from their burrows. These birds may be released at dusk from suitable sites away from artificial lights. (B197.15.w15)
• Entanglement of fishing tackle or other debris.(B197.15.w15)
  • See: Foreign Body Entanglement and Snaring
• Ingestion of fishing tackle or other debris.(B197.15.w15)
  • See: Hook and Line Injuries in Waterfowl
• Gunshot wounds.(B197.15.w15)
• Injuries from predators.(B197.15.w15)
  • See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds
• Lacerations from e.g. boat propellers, jet skis.(B197.15.w15)
  • See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds

(D24, D29, B151, B199)

Other important diseases:

• Keel Lesions in birds kept off water during treatment.
  • These lesions are particularly likely to develop in emaciated birds with a prominent keel.
• Aspergillosis
  • Treatment is rarely successful once clinical signs are apparent. (B197.15.w15)
• Puffinosis in Puffinus puffinus - Manx shearwater. (B197.15.w15)

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Swift, Nightjar, Swallow & Martin Considerations Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Apodidae, Hirundindae, Caprimulgidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Exhaustion and falling to ground after migration. Such birds may benefit from fluids and emergency feeding overnight before release.
• Nestlings following dislodging of nest.
• Fractured wings (occasional).
• Cat bites. (See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds) Injuries may include:
  • Lacerations, particularly over the rump.
  • Puncture wounds, particularly common under the wings over the “chest” area.
  • Wing fractures.

Apus apus - Common swift

• Swifts found on the ground is in need of assistance as it will be unable to take off again from this position and is vulnerable to predation and to mobbing by other birds.
• Swifts are unsuitable for long-term captivity. Euthanasia may be the most humane option for swifts with injuries precluding a rapid release (e.g. complicated fractures).(B151)
• Swifts are commonly parasitised by Crataerina pallida - louse fly.
  • The presence of more than one or two of these is unusual. 
  • The parasites may be physically removed. 

(D24, B151, V.w5)

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Wader Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the families Rallidae, Scolopacidae, Burhinidae, Charadriidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Trauma - road traffic accidents or flying into overhead wires.
  • Further information on impact injury is available in Impact Injury in Waterfowl
• Fishing line injuries/entanglement.
  • See: Foreign Body Entanglement and Snaring
• Entanglement in netting around garden ponds (particularly fish-eating species such as herons).
  • See: Foreign Body Entanglement and Snaring
• Starvation and emaciation after a prolonged cold spell.
  • N.B. herons normally have a prominent keel and therefore always feel somewhat emaciated on physical examination.

(D24, B151, B199, V.w26)

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Common Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Waterfowl Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general physical/clinical examination section above)

These species are from the family Anatidae.

Common findings and reasons for presentation:

• Traumatic injuries: crash-landings on roads, collision with overhead lines, air gun and other firearm injuries.
  • Fractures of legs, wings, bill.
  • See: Impact Injury in Waterfowl
• Electrical burns: from power-line collisions (may also have traumatic injuries).
  • See: Electrocution in Waterfowl
• Lead poisoning
• Oiling
  • Main cause for presentation of seaducks.
• Hook and line (fishing tackle) injuries:
  • See: Hook and Line Injuries in Waterfowl
• Gang-rape injuries in female mallard.
  • Feather loss and/or skin wounds along the nape of the neck and back. (V.w26)
  • See: Scalping in Waterfowl
• Mass mortality/sickness is most likely to be related to Avian Botulism (generally in summer) or Duck Plague (generally in the spring), but the possibility of toxic Blue-green Algae (See: Blue-Green Algae Toxicity in Waterfowl) and multiple birds with lead poisoning (See: Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl) should also be considered.
• "Orphans" (See: Rearing of Birds (Bird Husbandry and Management))
  • Anas platyrhynchos - Mallard ducklings may be presented where the mother has nested in a site requiring a journey across a main road or similar to reach water.
• Dog bites:
  • Puncture wounds are typically distributed along the bird's neck.(V.w26)
  • See: Lacerations & Punctures including Bite Wounds
• Angel wing

(B118.18.w18, B151, B199, D24, D29, V.w26)

Other important diseases:

• Avian Botulism
• Duck Plague
• Aspergillosis
• Endoparasites (See: List of Parasitic Diseases)

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• The Barn Owl Trust
• British Trust for Ornithology (BTO)
• British Wildlife Health Association (BWHA)
• British Wildlife Rehabilitation Council
• The Countryside Agency
• Countryside Council for Wales
• Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs
• English Nature
• Environment Agency
• Environment and Heritage Service
• Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland
• Greendale Laboratories
• Hawk and Owl Trust
• Hydestiles Wildlife Hospital
• Idexx Laboratories, Wetherby
• International Fund for Animal Welfare
• International Otter Survival Fund (IOSF)
• Irish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
• London Wildcare
• The National Birds of Prey Centre
• Raptor Rescue
• Royal Society for Nature Conservation
• Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
• Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)
• The Royal Veterinary College, Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases (PID)
• St Tiggywinkles- The Wildlife Hospital Trust
• The Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Scottish SPCA)
• Scottish National Heritage
• Sea Life Centres
• Secret World Wildlife Rescue
• Swan Lifeline
• Swan Rescue Sanctuary
• Swan Sanctuary
• Swanman’s UK Wildlife Rescue Directory
• Veterinary Laboratories Agency
• Veterinary Poisons Information Service
• WildAid
• Wildlife Aid
• Wildlife and Countryside Directorate, Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR)
• WildLife Care Trust and Hospital
• Wildlife Incident Investigation Scheme (WIIS)
• The Wildlife Veterinary Investigation Centre
• The World Owl Trust

• Ethics and Legal Aspects of Treatment and Rehabilitation of Wild Animal Casualties (British Wildlife Rehabilitation Council)
• Guidelines For Wildlife Rehabilitation Units (British Wildlife Rehabilitation Council)
• FALCONIFORMES (Diurnal Birds of Prey) Management Guidelines for the Welfare of Zoo Animals (Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland)
• Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases General Field Procedure and Diseases of Birds (National Wildlife Health Center)
• Standards for Wildlife Rehabilitation (RSPCA)
• Swan Sanctuary Code Of Practice (The Swan Sanctuary)
• Waterfowl Management Guidelines (The Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust)
• Wildlife Casualty Recording Scheme (British Wildlife Rehabilitation Council)