Physical/Clinical Examination |
- When examining a wildlife casualty animal, as with any animal, it is important to be
systematic.
- Bilateral structures should always be compared with one another for asymmetry.
- Remember that "common things occur commonly"; in wildlife casualties trauma
(physical damage) is a common reason for presentation.
BODY TEMPERATURE:
- Reptiles and amphibian species are poikilotherms
(commonly referred to as "cold-blooded"). The body temperature will give a
indication of whether lack of movement is due to low temperature or injury / disease.
Warming the animals by providing an environmental temperature around 20°C will allow this
assessment to be made.
PULSE, HEART & RESPIRATION
- Respiratory rate in reptiles and amphibia is usually almost imperceptible. Evidence of
mouth breathing or obvious respiratory effort is usually abnormal. Lung problems can be
caused by a variety of agents and is commonly associated with virus, bacterial, fungal and
parasitic agents.
- Heart rate may be measured by auscultation with a stethoscope.
- Pulse rate may be measured by placing the fingers over the heart on snakes and lizards.
- The pulse rate and the heart rate should be the same if the heart is functioning
correctly to pump blood around the body.
- The heart/pulse rate is typically higher in smaller animals than in larger species.
- The heart/pulse rate is likely to be elevated in wildlife casualties due to stress.
SKIN & SCALES:
- Particular attention should be paid to abnormal patterns and lifting of scales,
ulceration, reddening, cutaneous discharges, and swelling.
- Careful
examination for puncture wounds should be made in all casualties with a history of
possible cat bites.
- Check for the presence of external parasites.
- Garden strimmer injuries may be evident as cuts.
- The skin of amphibia is particularly sensitive and can be easily damaged by handling.
HEAD & NECK:
General:
Mouth:
- Examine for fractures and evidence of malocclusion. Moisture or dried mucus around the
mouth may indicate oral infection, ulceration, or irritation from a foreign body.
- Colour of oral mucous membranes should be noted, particularly if there is evidence of
cyanosis, paleness and congestion.
- Petechiae,
ulcers and any mucus or solid cheese-like (caseous) exudates
should be noted. These may be particularly evident around the choanae.
- Blood in the oral cavity, instability of the mandible and / or asymmetry of the jaw may
indicate trauma to the head.
Eye & Periorbital Area:
- Eyes should be shiny and the cornea clear.
- Check for the presence of surface lesions. Corneal
scratches and ulcers can be identified using
fluorescein dye. In reptiles they can be covered by thick caseous plaques.
- Check
snakes for retained eye-scales.
- The
anterior chamber should be clear of blood or exudate.
- The
colour and shape of each iris should be compared.
- The
eye may appear dull and sunken in dehydrated animals.
- Increased
ocular discharge (epiphora)
may be caused by irritation, trauma or infection.
- Check for inflammation of the eyelids and conjunctiva, e.g. due to the presence of a
foreign body.
- Check for swelling (unilateral or bilateral) just above/below the eye which may be
caused by sinusitis, seen with e.g. various respiratory infections.
- Note whether the shape and degree of protrusion of the eyeball is similar for the two
eyes. Eyeball
(globe) rupture commonly occurs following concussive trauma. A protruding eye on one side
may be caused by an abscess behind the eye, tumour or trauma. An eyeball decreased in size
could be caused by orbital injury.
Nares:
- The nares should be clear, without dried discharges or mucus. Ulceration or loss of skin
colour can indicate a chronic nasal discharge problem.
Top of head and ear:
- The temporal muscles should be full and slightly rounded. Sunken muscles could indicate
weight loss or severe dehydration. Asymmetrical swelling could indicate infection, trauma
or neoplasia.
- Tympanic membranes should be checked, particularly for swelling underneath which may
indicate infection with caseous exudate.
LEGS & FEET:
- Palpate and manipulate legs carefully for fractures or dislocations.
- Check the whole length of each long bone.
- Palpate and manipulate each joint.
- Check
for deviation, normal range of motion, crepitus ("crunching" sensation) and
instability.
- Legs should also be held out together and compared for symmetry.
- Note any discoloured areas (pale and cold, reddened and swollen or dry and necrotic)
which may indicate e.g. frostbite (Frostbite).
- Check for joint swellings indicative of osteomyelitis (bone infection), articular gout (Gout),
arthritis etc.
- Palpation
of the pelvis for evidence of fracture and dislocation is important. Following pelvic
trauma, consideration must be given as to the subsequent likelihood that adult female
mammals may have difficulties giving birth (dystocia).
- Gentle
palpation of the vertebral column for evidence of deformity or pain is important for
casualties with a history of trauma and neurological signs.
BODY:
- Palpate body gently for any surface masses.
- Check major muscle masses are symmetrical.
- Examine
abdomen for signs of generalised distension (e.g. ascites, obesity, haemorrhage) or
localised masses (e.g. retained eggs / young, abscess, pregnancy).
- Snakes
and lizards are easily damaged by rough handling which can result in rib fractures.
Radiography
is particularly useful with small animals that are difficult to examine, and should often
be used as a routine part of examination.
Examination
of faeces, haematology and other clinical samples is also often an important part of
diagnosis.
(B23,
B117,
B501,
V.w5,
V.w6,
V.w26) |
Common
Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Reptile Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general
physical/clinical examination section above) |
| Reptile considerations 
|
Coronella
austriaca - Smooth snake, Natrix
natrix - Grass snake, Vipera
berus - Common viper, Anguis
fragilis - Slow worm, Lacerta
agilis - Sand lizard, Lacerta
vivipara - Viviparous lizard. These species are from the families
Colubridae,
Viperidae,
Anguidae,
Lacertidae.
Common findings and reasons for presentation:
- If the animal is severely injured / diseased - careful consideration must be given to
the appropriateness of treatment and likelihood of survival; euthanasia should be
considered. See: Wildlife Casualty
Euthanasia
- Traumatic injuries: Usually present as road traffic accident victims, often with severe
injuries necessitating euthanasia.
- Cat bites.
- Dog bites - may be severe internal damage including spinal damage.
- Caught in netting e.g. grass snakes which become caught in netting around garden ponds.
- Impact or other injury following attacks by people.
- Garden strimmer wounds.
(B117,
B151,
B199,
D24,
V.w26)
Other important diseases:
- Salmonellosis
and other bacterial infections (important as a zoonosis).
- Mycobacterium spp. infection.
Cold-water Mycobacterium species (e.g. Mycobacterium xenopi and Mycobacterium
marinum) have been recorded in captive reptiles, and in association with
"aquarist's nodules" (skin lesions) and lung lesions in humans.
- A number of viruses have been found in reptiles.
- Parasites are common in reptiles, and a variety
of roundworms, tapeworms, flatworms, flukes,ectoparasites and protozoans have been found.
- Fungal infections are recorded, particularly
those fungi usually present in the environment which can produce disease in reptiles that
are already debilitated.
- Nutritional deficiencies, burns, trauma,
abscesses, scale-rot (dermal ulceration), mouth-rot, stress-induced regurgitation, egg
(live-young) retention and neoplasia are common problems in captive reptiles.
(B117,
B501)
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Common
Findings and Reasons for Presentation - Amphibian
Considerations
(The species-specific sections should be read in association with the general
physical/clinical examination section above) |
| Amphibian Considerations |
Triturus
cristatus - Northern crested newt, Triturus
helveticus - Palmate newt, Triturus
vulgaris - Smooth newt, Bufo
bufo - Common European toad, Bufo
calamita - Natterjack toad, Rana
esculenta - Edible frog, Rana
ridibunda - Marsh frog, Rana
temporaria - European common frog. These species are from the families Bufonidae,
Ranidae,
Salamandridae.
Common findings and
reasons for presentation:
- If the animal is severely injured / diseased - careful
consideration must be given to the appropriateness of treatment and likelihood of
survival; euthanasia should be considered. See: Wildlife Casualty Euthanasia
- If a number of animals are affected, consideration must be
given to:
- the possibility of environmental pollution (e.g.
pesticides, chemical and biological wastes, oil etc.). Amphibia are quickly affected by
toxic compounds in the environment which are readily absorbed through the skin.
- infectious agents such as Iridovirus infection (see below)
and the possible spread of disease agents not previously seen in the UK (see
Chytridiomycosis below).
- If either of the above are suspected, advice should be
sought from such organisations as Environment
Agency, Froglife
and Veterinary
Laboratories Agency.
- May present as road traffic accident victims.
Fractures usually heal if left alone, although jaws may need
stabilisation.
- Topical salt
poisoning has been recorded, particularly affecting toads crossing roads which have
been recently salted. These should be washed in clean water (B151).
- Garden mower/strimmer accidents, particularly for frogs. These can sometimes be sutured.
General anaesthesia is usually indicated.
- Cat bites, mainly frogs and toads. These are often untreatable, but antibiotics will
usually be indicated.
N.B. Newts rarely present as casualties.
(D24,
B151,
B199)
Other important diseases:
- Redleg.
- Mycobacterium spp. infection.
Cold-water Mycobacterium species (e.g. Mycobacterium xenopi and Mycobacterium
marinum) have been recorded in laboratory amphibia, and in association with
"aquarist's nodules" (skin lesions) and lung lesions in humans.
- Viral infections:
- Iridovirus infection (Iridoviridae).
- Ranaviruses within Iridoviridae family are often highly virulent and can cause systemic
disease (which may be associated with haemorrhages), resulting in death. Tadpoles appear
to be particularly susceptible. (J84.5.w1).
- Iridovirus has been isolated from common frogs (Rana
temporaria - European common frog)
involved in group mortality incidents in the UK. Post mortem findings included
skin ulceration with necrotic lesions, varying degrees of emaciation and systemic (liver)
haemorrhages (J3.137.w4).
- Adenovirus-like and poxvirus-like particles have
been found in frogs examined in mass mortality events. Their significance is uncertain.
- Chytridiomycosis. (Phylum / Division - Chytridiomycota)
- Parasites are common in Amphibia, which are
intermediate and final hosts for a variety of roundworms, tapeworms, flatworms, flukes and
protozoans. These may affect a wide variety of body organs and have been implicated with
developmental deformities (B117,
B501, J84.5.w1).
- Worldwide, leeches, parasitic crustaceans such as
Argulus spp. and flies (Diptera)
has been recorded to affect Amphibia (B501).
- Fungal infections are recorded, particularly
those fungi usually present in the environment which can produce disease in amphibia that
are already debilitated (B501).
For further advice on wild UK amphibians, contact Froglife.
(D24,
B151,
B117,
B199,
B501)
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